IT and Applications

Data is a collection of raw, unprocessed facts, figures, symbols or characters (such as numbers, text, images or sounds) that have no meaning by themselves until they are processed into information. For example, "45", "Ram" and "Kathmandu" are data.

A digital computer is a computer that processes data represented in discrete binary form (0s and 1s) and performs arithmetic and logical operations on it according to stored instructions. Most modern computers, such as PCs and laptops, are digital computers.

TPS (Transaction Processing System) records and processes routine day-to-day transactions (such as sales and payroll) at the operational level, whereas MIS (Management Information System) summarises this transaction data into periodic reports that help middle managers monitor and control performance.

HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) is the application-layer protocol used by web browsers and web servers to request and transfer web pages and other resources (text, images, video) over the Internet. Its secure version is HTTPS.

The three major components of the CPU are:

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations.
2. Control Unit (CU), which directs and coordinates all operations of the computer.
3. Registers, small high-speed storage locations that hold data and instructions temporarily during processing.

System software is a set of programs that controls and manages the computer hardware and provides a platform on which application software can run. Examples are operating systems (Windows, Linux), device drivers, language translators and utility programs.

Confidentiality is a principle of information security which ensures that information is accessible only to authorised persons and is protected from unauthorised disclosure. It is commonly achieved through passwords, access control and encryption.

Data mining is the process of analysing large volumes of data stored in databases or data warehouses to discover hidden patterns, relationships and trends that can be used for decision making, such as finding the buying habits of customers.

On the basis of architecture, computer networks are of two types:

1. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) network, in which all computers have equal status and share resources directly.
2. Client-Server network, in which dedicated servers provide services and resources to client computers.

A data model is a conceptual framework that describes how data is structured, stored, related and manipulated in a database, along with the constraints applied to it. Common examples are the hierarchical, network, relational and object-oriented models.

Cache memory is a small, very fast memory placed between the CPU and main memory (RAM). It stores copies of the data and instructions that the CPU uses most frequently, so the CPU does not have to wait for the slower RAM.

• It is built from fast static RAM (SRAM), and is more expensive than RAM, hence small in size.
• It is organised in levels: L1 (inside the CPU, fastest), L2 and L3 (larger but slower).
• When the CPU finds the needed data in the cache (a "cache hit"), processing is faster; otherwise (a "cache miss") the data is fetched from RAM.

Its main purpose is to reduce the speed gap between the CPU and main memory and so improve system performance.

Three importance of database processing over file processing:

1. Reduced data redundancy and inconsistency: In file processing the same data is duplicated in many files; a database stores data centrally, so duplication is minimised and data stays consistent.
2. Data sharing and integrity: Many users and applications can share the same data at once, and integrity constraints keep the data accurate and valid.
3. Better security and easy access: A DBMS provides user-wise access control, backup and recovery, and query languages (such as SQL) for retrieving data quickly, which is difficult in file systems.

Multimedia combines text, graphics, audio, video and animation in an interactive way. Three applications:

1. Education and training: E-learning courses, interactive tutorials and simulations make learning more attractive and easier to understand.
2. Entertainment: Video games, films, music and animation are produced and delivered using multimedia.
3. Business and advertising: Product presentations, online advertisements, kiosks and video conferencing help companies promote and sell their products and communicate with customers.

Three objectives of an operating system:

1. Convenience: To make the computer easy to use by providing a friendly interface (command line or GUI) between the user and the hardware.
2. Efficient resource management: To manage and allocate the CPU, memory, storage and I/O devices among programs so that they are used effectively.
3. Execution of programs and security: To load and run application programs, schedule tasks, and protect data and resources from unauthorised access.

Cyber security is the practice of protecting computers, networks, programs and data from unauthorised access, attack, damage or theft in cyberspace. It aims to maintain the confidentiality, integrity and availability (the CIA triad) of information.

It uses measures such as firewalls, antivirus software, encryption, strong passwords, authentication, regular updates and backups, together with user awareness training. It guards against threats such as viruses, malware, ransomware, phishing, hacking and denial-of-service attacks. With growing use of the Internet in business and banking, cyber security is essential to protect organisations and individuals from financial and reputational loss.

A programming language is a set of rules and instructions used to write programs for a computer. The main types are:

1. Machine language (first generation): Written in binary 0s and 1s, which the computer understands directly. It is very fast to execute, but hard to write and machine dependent.
2. Assembly language (second generation): Uses mnemonics such as ADD and MOV instead of binary code. It needs an assembler to convert it to machine code, and is easier than machine language but still machine dependent.
3. High-level language (third generation): Uses English-like statements and is machine independent, for example C, Java, Python and COBOL. It needs a compiler or interpreter.
4. Fourth generation language (4GL): Non-procedural languages in which the user states what is required rather than how to do it, such as SQL and report generators. They are used mainly for databases.
5. Fifth generation language (5GL): Based on constraints and artificial intelligence, used for problem solving, such as Prolog and Mercury.

Information technology (IT) supports decision making by collecting, storing, processing and presenting accurate and timely information to managers. It helps in the following ways:

• Fast access to accurate data: Databases and reports give managers up-to-date facts instead of guesses.
• Analysis and forecasting: Decision support systems, spreadsheets and data mining analyse trends and compare alternatives ("what-if" analysis).
• Better communication: E-mail, video conferencing and shared systems let managers consult one another quickly.
• Reduced uncertainty and cost: Decisions are based on facts, which lowers risk and saves time.

Example: A retail chain such as a supermarket records every sale through a point-of-sale system and stores it in a database. The manager analyses the sales reports and finds that certain items sell out every weekend while others stay unsold. Using this information the manager decides to increase the stock of fast-moving goods, order them on time, and give discounts on slow-moving ones. This increases sales and profit and reduces wastage, showing how IT improves business decisions.

Network topology is the physical or logical arrangement of the computers (nodes) and cables in a network. Three common types:

1. Bus topology: All devices are connected to a single common cable (the backbone). It is cheap and easy to install, but if the backbone fails the whole network goes down, and performance falls as devices increase.
2. Star topology: All devices are connected to a central device (hub or switch). It is easy to add devices and to find faults, and failure of one cable affects only that device, but if the central hub fails the whole network fails.
3. Ring topology: Each device is connected to exactly two others, forming a closed loop, and data travels in one direction (often using a token). It gives orderly access, but a break in one node or cable can disrupt the whole network.

Other topologies are mesh and tree.

A database system architecture is the design or structure of a database system. It shows how users, application programs, the DBMS and the database are arranged and how they interact. Two types are:

1. Single-tier (1-tier) architecture: The user, application and database are all on the same machine. The user works directly with the database, with no network involved. It is simple and is used for personal or local databases, e.g. MS Access on one PC.
2. Two-tier (client-server) architecture: The application runs on the client machine and communicates directly with a database server, which manages the data and processes queries. It is easier to maintain and secure than single-tier and allows many users to share the data.

A further type is the three-tier architecture, which adds an application (middle) server between client and database server.

Why securing information systems is a challenge

Information systems are exposed to many threats, and protecting them is difficult for these reasons:

• Open and interconnected networks: Systems connected to the Internet can be attacked from anywhere in the world, so there is no physical boundary to defend.
• Variety of threats: Viruses, worms, Trojan horses, ransomware, phishing, hacking, denial-of-service attacks, spyware and insider misuse keep appearing in new forms.
• Human factor: Weak passwords, careless behaviour, lack of awareness and dishonest employees cause many security breaches.
• Rapid technological change: New technologies such as mobile devices, cloud computing and IoT create new weaknesses faster than they can be secured.
• Cost and complexity: Security needs money, skilled staff and constant updating, and strong security may reduce convenience for users.
• Vulnerable software and hardware: Bugs, unpatched software and natural disasters, power failures or theft can destroy data.
• Legal and ethical issues: Laws differ between countries, so offenders are hard to trace and punish.

Approaches for securing information systems

1. Physical security: Locks, guards, CCTV, biometric access and fire protection to safeguard hardware and premises.
2. Access control and authentication: User IDs, strong passwords, two-factor authentication and biometrics so that only authorised people can use the system.
3. Firewalls and intrusion detection: A firewall filters traffic between the internal network and the Internet; intrusion detection and prevention systems monitor and block suspicious activity.
4. Antivirus and anti-malware software: Detects, removes and prevents malicious software; it must be updated regularly.
5. Encryption: Converts data into unreadable cipher text so that intercepted or stolen data cannot be read; used with digital signatures and SSL/TLS.
6. Backup and disaster recovery: Regular backups and a recovery plan allow the system to be restored after failure or attack.
7. Software updates and patches: Fixing known vulnerabilities in the operating system and applications.
8. Policies, training and auditing: Security policies, staff training on safe practices and regular security audits and legal measures (such as cyber laws) to ensure compliance.

A combination of these technical, physical and administrative controls (defence in depth) gives the best protection.

Contemporary technologies help organisations to work faster, reduce costs, serve customers better and make better decisions. Five such technologies are:

1. Cloud computing It delivers computing resources such as servers, storage, databases and software over the Internet on a pay-as-you-use basis (IaaS, PaaS, SaaS). Organisations avoid heavy investment in hardware, can scale up or down quickly, and employees can access data from anywhere. Examples: Google Workspace, Microsoft Azure, AWS.

2. Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning AI enables machines to learn, reason and make decisions. Businesses use it for chatbots in customer service, fraud detection in banks, demand forecasting and personalised recommendations. It automates routine work and improves accuracy and speed.

3. Big data and data analytics Big data technologies collect and analyse very large and varied sets of data (sales, social media, sensors) to discover patterns and trends. Organisations use the results to understand customer behaviour, plan marketing, manage risk and improve decisions.

4. Internet of Things (IoT) IoT connects physical devices (sensors, machines, vehicles, meters) to the Internet so that they collect and exchange data. It helps in tracking inventory and deliveries, monitoring machine condition for preventive maintenance and saving energy, and so improves efficiency.

5. E-commerce and mobile technology (including mobile payments) Online shops, mobile apps and digital wallets (e.g. eSewa, Khalti, mobile banking) let organisations reach customers 24 hours a day, sell without geographical limits and receive payments quickly at lower cost.

Other examples are blockchain, robotic process automation and enterprise systems such as ERP and CRM. Together, these technologies increase productivity, improve customer satisfaction and give an organisation a competitive advantage.

On the basis of size (and processing power), computers are classified as:

1. Supercomputers: the largest and fastest, used for weather forecasting, space research and nuclear simulation.
2. Mainframe computers: large machines supporting hundreds of users at once, used by banks, airlines and big organisations.
3. Minicomputers: medium-sized multi-user machines, used by medium organisations for process control and small business.
4. Microcomputers: small single-user computers built with a microprocessor, including desktops, laptops, tablets and smartphones.

Information technology (IT) affects businesses in the following ways:

1. Improved efficiency and productivity: automation of routine tasks saves time and cost.
2. Better communication: email, video conferencing and messaging connect staff, customers and suppliers anywhere.
3. Better decision making: MIS, databases and data analytics supply timely, accurate information.
4. E-commerce and new markets: online selling and digital payments extend the market beyond geographic limits.
5. Improved customer service: CRM systems, websites and social media allow faster response.
6. Competitive advantage: new products, lower costs and innovation.
7. Cost reduction: less paperwork, lower staffing and operating costs.
8. Challenges: security risks, high initial investment, need for training, and job displacement.

Auxiliary memory (also called secondary or backup memory) is non-volatile, large-capacity storage used to keep programs and data permanently, even when the computer is switched off. It is slower and cheaper than primary memory and is not directly accessed by the CPU; data must first be moved to RAM. Examples: hard disk, SSD, CD/DVD, pen drive and magnetic tape.

Utility software is system software that performs maintenance and support tasks to help manage, analyse, configure and optimise the computer. It does not run the hardware directly like the operating system but keeps it working well. Examples: antivirus software, disk cleanup and defragmenter, backup and restore tools, file compression programs (WinZip), and file managers.

A protocol in a computer network is a set of rules and conventions that governs how data is formatted, transmitted, received and checked between devices so that they can communicate reliably. Examples: TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, SMTP and POP3.

A search engine is a software system (website) that searches the World Wide Web for information matching keywords entered by the user and displays a ranked list of results. It works by crawling web pages, indexing their content and ranking results by relevance. Examples: Google, Bing and Yahoo.

Sequential data processing is a method in which transactions are collected into a batch, sorted into a predefined order (usually by a key field), and then processed one after another in that order against a sequential file. It is used for batch jobs such as payroll and billing where records are processed in bulk and immediate results are not needed.

Encryption is the process of converting readable data (plaintext) into an unreadable coded form (ciphertext) using an algorithm and a key, so that only authorised parties holding the correct key can decrypt it back to the original. It protects confidentiality of data during storage and transmission, for example in online banking and HTTPS.

Data mining is the process of analysing large volumes of data stored in databases or data warehouses to discover hidden patterns, relationships and trends that support decision making. It uses statistics, machine learning and database techniques. Business uses include customer segmentation, market basket analysis, fraud detection and sales forecasting.

Characteristics of a computer:

1. Speed: processes millions of instructions per second.
2. Accuracy: gives error-free results if the input and program are correct.
3. Diligence: can work for long hours without fatigue or loss of concentration.
4. Versatility: can perform many different kinds of tasks.
5. Storage: stores large quantities of data that can be retrieved quickly.
6. Automation: executes a stored program without human intervention.
7. No intelligence (no IQ): works only according to given instructions.

The fourth generation of computers (about 1971 to 1980s) used microprocessors (VLSI chips). Characteristics:

1. Microprocessor technology: thousands of integrated circuits on a single chip (LSI/VLSI).
2. Small size and low cost: led to personal computers (PCs).
3. High speed and large memory: semiconductor memory (RAM) with greater reliability.
4. Software: use of high-level languages, GUI-based operating systems, and packages such as spreadsheets and word processors.
5. Networking: development of LAN, WAN and the Internet.
6. Low power use and heat: more reliable and easier to maintain.

Examples: IBM PC, Apple Macintosh.

Cyber security is essential because organisations and individuals depend on networked systems that store sensitive information. Reasons:

1. Protects data and privacy: guards personal, financial and business data against theft and unauthorised access.
2. Prevents financial loss: stops fraud, ransomware and hacking that can cause heavy losses.
3. Protects against malware and attacks: viruses, phishing, DDoS and spyware can disable operations.
4. Ensures business continuity: keeps systems and services available.
5. Maintains trust and reputation: customers rely on secure handling of their information.
6. Legal compliance: meets laws such as Electronic Transactions Act.
7. Protects national infrastructure: banking, power and government systems.

The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. It interprets and executes instructions and controls all other components. It has three main parts:

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): performs arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, etc.) and logical operations (comparison such as <, >, =).
2. Control Unit (CU): fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and directs and coordinates the operation of the ALU, memory and input/output devices.
3. Registers: small, very fast storage locations inside the CPU that temporarily hold data, instructions and addresses during processing.

CPU speed is measured in hertz (MHz/GHz).

Artificial intelligence (AI) enables machines to perform tasks that normally need human intelligence. Its role in business:

1. Customer service: chatbots and virtual assistants provide 24-hour support.
2. Decision support: analyses big data for forecasting, risk analysis and planning.
3. Marketing and sales: personalised recommendations, targeted advertising and customer segmentation.
4. Automation: reduces cost and error in routine operations such as production and accounting.
5. Finance: fraud detection, credit scoring and algorithmic trading.
6. Human resources: screening of CVs and employee analytics.
7. Supply chain: demand prediction and inventory optimisation.

E-Governance is the use of information and communication technology (ICT) by government to deliver services and conduct administration. It is necessary because:

1. Transparency and accountability: reduces corruption by making processes open and traceable.
2. Efficient service delivery: quick, 24-hour online services such as tax, licence and passport applications.
3. Cost and time saving: less paperwork and fewer visits to offices for citizens.
4. Citizen participation: online feedback and easy access to information.
5. Better coordination: between government departments and levels.
6. Reach to remote areas: brings services to people far from administrative centres.
7. Good governance and economic growth: improves business environment.

Primary memory (main memory) is the memory directly accessed by the CPU. It holds the data and instructions currently in use. It is fast but limited in capacity and is generally costlier per byte than secondary storage.

Types:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory): read/write, volatile (contents are lost when power is off), used for temporary storage of running programs. Two kinds:
   • SRAM (static): faster, costlier, needs no refresh; used for cache.
   • DRAM (dynamic): slower, cheaper, needs periodic refreshing; used as main memory.
2. ROM (Read Only Memory): non-volatile, normally only read; stores the start-up (boot) instructions. Types:
   • PROM: programmable once by the user.
   • EPROM: erasable with ultraviolet light and reprogrammable.
   • EEPROM: erasable electrically (e.g. flash memory).
3. Cache memory: a very fast small memory between CPU and RAM that stores frequently used data to speed up processing.

Network topology is the physical or logical arrangement of the nodes (computers and devices) and the links connecting them in a network.

Types:

1. Bus topology: all devices connect to a single common cable (backbone). Cheap and easy to install, but a break in the cable stops the whole network and performance falls with traffic.
2. Star topology: every device connects to a central hub or switch. Easy to add or remove devices and a single cable failure affects only one node; however, failure of the central hub stops everything.
3. Ring topology: each device connects to exactly two neighbours forming a closed loop; data travels in one direction (often with a token). Orderly access, but one break can disrupt the network.
4. Mesh topology: every device links to every other. Very reliable and fault tolerant but expensive and complex to cable.
5. Tree (hierarchical) topology: star networks arranged in a hierarchy connected to a root. Scalable, but depends on the root/backbone.
6. Hybrid topology: combination of two or more topologies.

A database model defines the logical structure of a database and how data is stored, related and accessed. The main types are:

1. Hierarchical model: data is organised in a tree structure with parent and child records. Each child has only one parent (one-to-many). It is fast but inflexible.
2. Network model: records are connected as a graph; a child can have multiple parents (many-to-many), using links or pointers. More flexible but complex.
3. Relational model: data is stored in tables (relations) of rows (tuples) and columns (attributes), linked by keys. Simple, flexible and queried with SQL. Most widely used (e.g. MySQL, Oracle).
4. Object-oriented model: data is stored as objects with attributes and methods, supporting inheritance; suited to multimedia and complex data.
5. Entity-relationship model: a conceptual model showing entities and relationships, used in design.

Multimedia is the integrated use of multiple forms of media, such as text, graphics, audio, video and animation, in a computer-based presentation to convey information interactively.

Elements of a multimedia system:

1. Text: words and characters; the basic element used to convey information.
2. Graphics (images): still pictures, drawings, charts and photographs that make content attractive.
3. Audio: sound, speech and music that add emphasis and explain content.
4. Video: moving pictures recorded live, effective for demonstrations.
5. Animation: artificially created motion through a sequence of images.
6. Interactivity: users control content through menus, links and buttons.

Applications: education, entertainment, advertising, training and business presentations.

Hard copy output devices produce output on a physical medium such as paper that can be touched and kept permanently. Examples: printers and plotters.

Soft copy output devices display output electronically, with no permanent physical form; it disappears when the display is turned off. Examples: monitor, speakers and projector.

Printers

Impact printers print by striking an inked ribbon against paper (dot matrix, line, daisy wheel).

Merits:

• Can make carbon copies (multiple copies in one pass).
• Low running cost per page.
• Durable, work in harsh/dusty conditions.
• Can print on continuous stationery.

Demerits:

• Noisy.
• Slow with poor print quality.
• Limited graphics and fonts.
• Mechanical parts wear out.

Non-impact printers print without striking (inkjet, laser, thermal).

Merits:

• Quiet.
• High speed and high quality output, good graphics and colour.
• Wide choice of fonts.
• Fewer moving parts.

Demerits:

• Cannot produce carbon copies.
• Higher cost of toner/cartridges and printer.
• Inkjet ink may smudge.
• Not suitable for continuous multi-part forms.

Operating system (OS): An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides an interface between the user and the hardware. Examples: Windows, Linux, macOS, Android.

Functions of an operating system:

1. Process management: creating, scheduling and terminating processes; allocating CPU time.
2. Memory management: allocating and freeing main memory among programs.
3. File management: organising, storing, naming and protecting files and directories.
4. Device management: controlling input/output devices through drivers.
5. Security and protection: passwords and access control.
6. User interface: command line or graphical interface.
7. Resource allocation and job scheduling.
8. Error detection and handling.
9. Networking and communication.

Types of operating system:

1. Batch OS: jobs of a similar type are collected and processed in batches without user interaction.
2. Multiprogramming OS: several programs reside in memory and the CPU switches between them to maximise use.
3. Multitasking (time-sharing) OS: the CPU time is shared rapidly among users or tasks, giving quick response (e.g. Windows, Unix).
4. Multiuser OS: allows many users to access the system at once (Unix, Linux).
5. Real-time OS (RTOS): responds within strict time limits; used in air traffic control, missiles and industrial control.
6. Distributed OS: manages a group of independent networked computers as one system.
7. Network OS: supports servers and shared resources over a network (Windows Server).
8. Mobile OS: designed for handheld devices (Android, iOS).

A mouse is a hand-held pointing input device that controls the movement of a pointer (cursor) on the screen. By moving it on a flat surface and pressing its buttons (left click, right click) and scroll wheel, the user can select, drag, open and execute items in a graphical user interface without typing commands.

IT (Information Technology) is the use of computers, software, networks, telecommunication and other electronic devices to create, store, process, retrieve, protect and exchange information in all its forms (data, text, voice, images and video).

In business, IT supports faster and more accurate decision making, communication, record keeping and service delivery, for example through e-mail, databases, internet banking and e-commerce.

RAM is called volatile memory because it holds data and instructions only while the computer is switched on. It needs a continuous electric supply to retain its contents, so when power is turned off or fails, everything stored in RAM is lost.

Bus: A bus is a set of parallel wires or electronic pathways that carries data, addresses and control signals between the CPU, main memory and input/output devices. The three main types are the data bus, address bus and control bus.

An operating system (OS) is system software that manages the computer's hardware and software resources and provides a platform for application programs. Its importance is as follows.

• Interface between user and hardware: It lets the user work with the computer through commands or a graphical interface.
• Resource management: It allocates the CPU, memory, storage and I/O devices among programs efficiently.
• Process and memory management: It schedules tasks, supports multitasking and keeps programs from interfering with each other.
• File management: It creates, stores, organises, copies and deletes files and folders.
• Security: It protects data and the system through passwords, user accounts and access control.
• Error handling and device control: It detects errors and controls peripherals through device drivers.
• Platform for applications: Application software runs only on top of the OS.

Examples: Windows, Linux, macOS, Android.

A computer network is a group of interconnected computers and devices that share resources and information. Its advantages are as follows.

• Resource sharing: Printers, scanners, storage and internet connections can be shared, which reduces cost.
• Data and file sharing: Users can exchange files quickly and access common databases.
• Fast communication: E-mail, messaging and video conferencing allow instant communication.
• Centralised management and backup: Data and software can be managed, updated and backed up from one place.
• Cost saving: Licensed software and hardware can be shared among many users.
• Reliability: Data can be copied to other computers, so a failure in one machine does not lose it.
• Better security control: Access rights and permissions can be set centrally.
• Remote access and collaboration: Staff can work together from different locations.

Antivirus is a software program designed to detect, prevent, quarantine and remove computer viruses and other malicious software such as worms, trojans, spyware and ransomware. It scans files, programs and incoming data (e-mail, downloads, USB drives), using virus definition databases and behaviour monitoring, and it must be updated regularly to protect against new threats.

Examples: Kaspersky, Norton, McAfee, Avast, Windows Defender.

Both repeat automatically on each page and are added through Insert > Header / Footer in MS Word.

MS-PowerPoint is presentation software used to create slide shows. Its main uses are as follows.

• Preparing business, academic and training presentations with text, pictures, charts, tables, audio and video.
• Presenting reports, proposals, marketing plans and project results to an audience, using a projector or screen.
• Adding animations and slide transitions to make presentations attractive.
• Creating handouts, speaker notes and printed slides.
• Building self-running slide shows for kiosks, product demonstrations and e-learning.
• Using templates and themes to give a professional, consistent design.
• Sharing presentations as files, PDF or online for review and collaboration.

Marketing Information System (MKIS/MIS for marketing)

A marketing information system is a structured, computer-based system of people, equipment and procedures that gathers, sorts, analyses, evaluates and distributes timely and accurate marketing information to marketing managers for planning, implementing and controlling marketing activities. A personal MKIS is one built and used by an individual manager or small business to meet that person's own marketing information needs, such as customer lists, sales records and competitor details, usually kept on a personal computer.

Features of MKIS

• Future orientation: It supports planning and forecasting of demand, sales and trends.
• Integrated system: It combines internal records, marketing intelligence, marketing research and decision support in one system.
• Timely and accurate information: It provides current, reliable data when managers need it.
• Decision support: It uses models and analysis tools to evaluate pricing, promotion, product and distribution options.
• Continuous and systematic: Data is collected regularly, not only when a problem arises.
• User friendly and flexible: Managers can query data and get reports easily, and the system can adapt to changing needs.
• Cost effective: The value of the information should exceed the cost of collecting it.
• Feedback and control: It compares actual performance with targets and highlights deviations.

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the brain of the computer. It interprets and executes program instructions, performs calculations and logical operations, and controls all other parts of the computer.

Components of the CPU

• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): It performs arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical operations (comparisons such as <, >, =, AND, OR, NOT).
• Control Unit (CU): It fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and directs the ALU, memory and input/output devices to execute them. It coordinates and times all operations but does not process data itself.
• Registers: These are very small, extremely fast storage locations inside the CPU that temporarily hold data, instructions and addresses during processing. Examples are the accumulator, program counter, instruction register and memory address register.

Cache memory is also often built into the CPU to speed up access to frequently used data. The speed of the CPU is measured in GHz.

A language translator is a system program that converts a program written in a high-level or assembly language (source code) into machine language (object code) that the computer can understand. The three types are the assembler, the compiler and the interpreter.

Difference between compiler and interpreter

• Formula: A formula is an expression entered in a cell that begins with an equals sign (=) and calculates a value from numbers, cell references, operators and functions. For example, =A1+B1 or =SUM(B2:B10). The result updates automatically when the referenced cells change.
• Worksheet: A worksheet (spreadsheet) is a single page in an Excel file made up of rows and columns whose intersections form cells. It is where data is entered, calculated and analysed. Each workbook starts with one or more worksheets (Sheet1, Sheet2, and so on).
• Workbook: A workbook is the Excel file itself. It contains one or more worksheets, plus charts and other objects, and is saved with the extension .xlsx.

Financial Information System (FIS)

A Financial Information System is a computer-based information system that collects, processes, stores and reports financial data and information to help managers and external parties plan, control and make financial decisions. It supports activities such as accounting, budgeting, cash management, investment, credit control and financial reporting.

Major features of FIS

• Integration: It combines data from accounts receivable, accounts payable, payroll, inventory and general ledger into one system.
• Accuracy and reliability: Automated processing reduces calculation errors and gives consistent data.
• Timely reports: Balance sheets, income statements, cash-flow statements and variance reports are available quickly and on demand.
• Planning and forecasting: Tools support budgeting, cash-flow projection, ratio analysis and what-if analysis.
• Internal control and security: Access rights, audit trails and validation checks guard against fraud and misuse.
• Database support: A common database serves many users and avoids duplication.
• Decision support: Managers get information for investment, financing, pricing and cost-control decisions.
• Compliance: It helps meet legal, tax and accounting-standard requirements.
• External and internal use: It serves managers, owners, banks, tax authorities and investors.

Types of memory in a computer

1. Primary (main) memory: RAM (SRAM, DRAM), ROM (PROM, EPROM, EEPROM) and cache memory.
2. Secondary (auxiliary) memory: hard disk, SSD, CD/DVD, pen drive (flash drive), memory card, magnetic tape.
3. Registers: very small, fast memory inside the CPU.

Difference between primary and secondary storage

Output devices are hardware devices that receive processed data from the computer and present it to the user in a human-readable form such as text, graphics, sound or video. Examples are monitors, printers, speakers and projectors. Output can be soft copy (on screen, audio) or hard copy (on paper).

Types of monitor

1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) monitor: It uses an electron gun that fires beams onto a phosphor-coated screen. It is bulky, heavy and uses more power, but gives good colour and has a wide viewing angle.
2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) monitor: It uses liquid crystals lit from behind by a backlight. It is thin, light and low in power consumption.
3. LED monitor: It is an LCD screen backlit by light-emitting diodes. It is brighter, thinner and more energy efficient than a plain LCD.
4. Plasma display: It uses small cells of ionised gas that glow. It gives good contrast and viewing angles for large screens, but uses more power.
5. Touchscreen monitor: It works as both an input and an output device and is used in ATMs, tablets and kiosks.

By colour capability, monitors are also classed as monochrome, grayscale and colour monitors.