English II

In Manto's "The Dog of Titwal", war is shown as senseless, destructive hatred between two sides who are alike in their anger and attitude. It turns even an innocent stray dog into a victim, as Jhun Jhun is shot by both sides who mistake him for a spy, which exposes the absurdity of the conflict.

First, art and design industries (fashion, architecture, film, advertising, crafts) create jobs and generate income and export earnings. Second, creative design adds value to products and attracts tourism and investment, which strengthens a country's competitiveness and overall economic growth.

Yes, children today are generally better prepared for natural disasters than in the past. Schools now teach disaster awareness, hold earthquake and fire drills, and children learn about safety through media and the internet. Early-warning systems and better public information have also improved their readiness.

Online learning can be slightly impersonal because students and teachers do not meet face to face. Learners work alone at a screen, so there is less direct interaction, body language, immediate feedback and the sense of belonging to a classroom community.

a. Emperor

b. Sultan (also sheikh or emir)

a. Chocolate is made from cocoa beans. (The past participle "made" is needed in the passive.)

b. Moths lay eggs. / Eggs are laid by moths. (Do not use the passive "are laid" with the subject "moths" as the doer.)

The poem by Langston Hughes is titled "Dream Variations" because it presents two versions (variations) of the same dream: a dream of freedom, where the speaker can spread his arms, dance and rest in the bright sun of day, and a calmer version where he finds rest in the cool night. The variations contrast the harsh, restrictive day with the gentle, accepting night, which reflects the Black American longing for freedom and equality.

In "Hearths of Sorrow" the narrator faced the hardships of an immigrant: loneliness and homesickness, separation from family, difficulty adjusting to a new culture and language, and the struggle to find work and make a living. Loss and sorrow stayed with him even as he tried to build a new life in America.

In Edward Albee's "The Sandbox", the young man is a muscular, handsome figure who does calisthenics near the dying Grandma. He symbolizes the Angel of Death, who comes gently to take her. He also stands for the empty, superficial youth culture that values good looks over depth.

Using the raft (boat) parable, the Buddha conveys that his teachings are a means to cross the river of suffering to enlightenment, not something to cling to. Once you have reached the other shore you should leave the raft behind rather than carry it on your back. Likewise, even good doctrines must eventually be let go of.

Albert Camus is fascinated by Sisyphus because Sisyphus is the "absurd hero". The gods condemned him to push a rock up a mountain forever, only for it to roll back down. Camus admires him for several reasons.

• Awareness: Sisyphus is conscious of his fate, especially in the moment when he walks back down to the rock, and this lucid awareness gives him dignity.
• Scorn and defiance: He rejects despair and scorns the gods, which makes him stronger than his fate.
• Acceptance and revolt: He accepts the repetitive, meaningless task without hope of escape, yet continues; his struggle itself gives meaning to his life.
• Mirror of human life: His endless labour resembles the repetitive routine of modern workers, so he represents all humans facing a world without ultimate meaning.

Camus concludes that "the struggle itself toward the heights is enough to fill a man's heart" and that "one must imagine Sisyphus happy."

Tennyson's poem "The Brook" is told in the brook's own voice. It travels from its source in the hills through valleys, villages and fields, until it joins the river. The poem's message can be drawn as follows.

• Life is a continuous journey: the brook flows on and says "men may come and men may go, but I go on for ever." Life and nature continue, whatever changes happen to people.
• Nature is permanent, humans are temporary: human generations pass, but the brook endures.
• Obstacles must be overcome: the brook meets stones, bends and slopes, but it keeps moving, just as a person must carry on through difficulties with determination.
• Usefulness and harmony: along its way the brook gives water, nourishes flowers, fish and fields, which teaches that we should be of service to others.
• Joy in movement and change: the lively rhythm shows that life is best lived with energy and cheerfulness.

Thus the poem encourages perseverance, hope and harmony with nature.

"The Empty Drum" is a Tolstoy-style tale about a king and a drum whose sound turns out to be empty. It contains the typical elements of a folktale.

• Simple, flat characters: a proud king, wise villagers and a clever protagonist, each representing a single quality such as pride, fear or wisdom.
• Moral lesson: the story teaches that loud noise or show is not proof of real strength; outward appearance can be hollow, and wisdom beats force.
• Simple plot and plain language: events follow a clear sequence of problem, trick and resolution, told in a direct style as if passed down orally.
• Timeless, unspecified setting: a distant kingdom with no exact time or place.
• Use of cleverness and trickery: the weak defeat the strong through intelligence rather than weapons; the king is defeated by an empty drum.
• Universal themes and a happy resolution: justice and wisdom triumph, suited to listeners of every age.

These features show that the story is a traditional folktale meant to teach as well as entertain.

a. It is important to prepare for a flood by storing food, clean water and medicines, moving valuables to higher places and knowing the nearest evacuation route.

b. It is a good idea to build houses on high ground, away from rivers and unstable slopes, using strong earthquake-resistant materials.

c. In areas that suffer from droughts, it's worth saving rainwater, digging wells and growing drought-resistant crops.

d. If there is a severe weather warning, it is best to stay indoors, follow official instructions and keep an emergency kit ready.

e. It is your responsibility to learn basic first aid, to help your neighbours and to stay informed about the risks in your area.

a. It was the worst epidemic for many years. (The superlative takes "the"; "epidemics" may be kept in the plural with "the worst epidemics".)

b. Individuals should be allowed to do whatever they like. However, this freedom must not harm others / provided that they do not harm others.

c. When starting a new business, it is wise to consult other experts in the field.

d. We need to mitigate this kind of distance, We need a range of effective strategies to reduce the gap.

e. A noticeable increase in allergies and diabetes.

In Parijaat's "New Year", the reversal of expectations is shown by the contrast between what a new year is supposed to bring and what actually happens. The new year is traditionally a time of hope, celebration, new beginnings and renewal. Instead, the characters, especially those who are poor or marginalized, find that nothing changes: the same hunger, struggle and hardship continue, and the festivities seem empty or even ironic for them.

The author uses irony to show this gap. Those who are expected to rejoice feel sorrow, those who are expected to be fortunate remain indifferent, and promises of change turn out to be hollow. Through this reversal Parijaat criticizes social inequality and shows that a change in the calendar does not change real life unless society itself changes.

Fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas have powered economies for over a century, but they are finite and harmful to the environment. I believe the growing shift towards alternative energy such as wind and solar power is a clearly positive trend.

Environmental benefits. Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide and other pollutants that cause global warming, acid rain and air pollution. Wind and solar power produce almost no emissions during operation, so they help to protect the climate and public health.

Sustainability. Fossil fuels will eventually run out, whereas the wind and the sun are renewable. Relying on them secures energy for future generations.

Economic and social benefits. Countries that import oil spend large sums of foreign currency; local renewable energy reduces this dependence and protects countries from price shocks. The renewable sector also creates jobs in manufacturing, installation and maintenance. Remote regions that are not connected to the grid, such as hilly areas in Nepal, can obtain electricity from small solar systems.

Drawbacks. Critics point out that wind and solar energy depend on weather, need large areas and storage batteries, and have high initial costs. However, technology is improving rapidly, costs are falling, and these problems can be reduced through better storage and a mixed energy supply.

In conclusion, the advantages of alternative energy for the environment, the economy and long-term security outweigh its disadvantages, so the trend is positive and should be encouraged.

Based on "The Right to Control One's Learning", I think schools are exposed to some bad influences from the outside world, but these should not be the reason to isolate children from it. The essay argues that learners should have control over what and how they learn, rather than being shut inside a system that decides everything for them.

Why outside influences can be harmful. Children near schools may meet bad habits such as smoking, drug use, violence, misleading advertising or harmful online content. Peer pressure outside the classroom can distract them from their studies.

Why protection by isolation is not enough. The essay suggests that real learning happens when children are free to explore, ask questions and take responsibility for what they learn. If schools wall children off from the world, they do not learn to judge, choose and resist negative influences. Learning that is forced or controlled by others kills curiosity and independence.

A balanced view. Schools should guide rather than control: teach critical thinking, values and life skills, involve parents, and let students make choices about their learning. The outside world also offers positive influences such as community experience, work and nature that enrich learning.

Therefore, the outside world can have bad influences, but the best response is to prepare children to handle it by giving them more control over their own learning, as the essay argues, rather than keeping them cut off from it.

In "On Natural Death" and "A Change of Words", the Native American essayists present a worldview that differs deeply from that of mainstream White America.

View of nature and the land. Native Americans see themselves as part of nature and the land as sacred and alive, to be respected and shared. Mainstream White culture tends to treat land as property that can be owned, divided, used and sold.

Attitude to death. In "On Natural Death" death is seen as a natural, accepted part of the cycle of life, which returns a person to the earth and the community, and should be met with dignity and without fear. In the mainstream view, death is often feared, hidden and treated as a failure, to be postponed through medicine and technology.

Language and meaning. "A Change of Words" shows that words carry cultural values. Native languages express relationships, respect and the connection between people and nature, whereas the vocabulary of the dominant culture reflects ownership, progress and control. When words are changed or replaced, the Native way of seeing the world is gradually weakened.

Community versus individual. Native societies stress community, oral tradition and shared responsibility; the mainstream culture stresses individualism, material success and written law.

Both essays therefore show that Native Americans perceive the world through spiritual unity with nature, community and tradition, which stands in contrast to the White American emphasis on ownership, control and individual progress.

Frederick W. Taylor, the father of scientific management, proposed four principles to replace rule-of-thumb methods with science. Each can be applied in practice as follows.

1. Develop a science for each element of work. Replace guesswork with scientific study. In practice, managers carry out time-and-motion studies to find the one best way to perform each task and set a standard time for it.

2. Scientifically select, train and develop workers. Instead of letting workers choose their jobs and train themselves, match each person to the task that suits their abilities and give them training in the best method. In practice this means careful recruitment, testing and systematic training.

3. Cooperate with workers to ensure the work is done in the scientific way. Management and workers must work together in harmony. In practice, this means offering incentives such as a differential piece-rate wage, so that workers who meet the standard earn more and see the benefit of following the new methods.

4. Divide work and responsibility between management and workers. Managers take responsibility for planning, organizing and supervising, while workers carry out the tasks. In practice, a planning department prepares instructions and schedules, and functional foremen supervise the workers.

Summary. Taylor's approach seeks higher efficiency and productivity, higher wages for workers and lower cost for employers. Its supporters value standardization and specialization, while critics say it can treat workers like machines.

a. Diverse meanings of "business etiquette"

According to the passage, business etiquette is much more than knowing which fork to use at a business lunch. It means presenting yourself with polish so that you can be taken seriously; showing self-control and good manners in business and social situations; being comfortable with others and making them comfortable; and the way a person presents himself or herself to others. It is also described as "the recipe of success" for building trust and good relationships with clients, customers and employees.

b. How etiquette determines success or failure of communication in business

Good etiquette builds trust and respect, makes the other party comfortable and creates a positive impression, so communication is open and productive and valuable alliances and deals are formed. A breach of manners, even an unintentional one, can offend people and damage relationships, and many profitable partnerships have been lost this way. Thus etiquette strongly influences whether communication succeeds or fails.

c. Negative consequences of not following etiquette for an employee

An employee who ignores etiquette may be seen as lacking self-control and professionalism, may embarrass himself or the company, and may lose the trust of colleagues, clients and managers. This can lead to poor relationships, loss of business opportunities, being passed over for promotion, and many obstacles on the path to success.

d. What the situation implies about our behaviour online

The passage says good manners matter whether business is "online or offline". So online we should be polite and respectful in emails, chats and meetings; think before posting; avoid offensive language; respond promptly; respect others' time and privacy; and maintain a professional image. Online behaviour also shapes how others judge our character and reliability.

Native Indians called paper bills "green frog skins" because the notes were green like a frog's skin and, to them, were thin and worthless in themselves, just a piece of skin-like paper. The phrase also shows their suspicion of a money system that valued paper over land and nature, and which was used to take things from them.

The main purpose of art is to express human ideas, emotions and experiences and to communicate them to others. It also beautifies life, preserves culture and history, and makes people think about society and themselves.

The man's name is not mentioned in "The Andhi Khola" so that he can stand for every ordinary, poor villager who suffers under hardship and exploitation. Leaving him nameless makes him a universal figure and shows how the poor lose their individual identity in the face of poverty and power.

1. go on - c. continue
2. go up - d. increase
3. look into - b. study
4. leave out - a. exclude

In "A Tale", the gods appear as powerful but unreliable and sometimes selfish beings who control human fate. They are shown as remote and proud, demanding worship and offerings, and they act according to their own whims rather than justice, so humans must obey or suffer.

a. By leading comfortable lives, people may be endangering future generations.

b. It is believed that the place where solar energy would be most effective is the Sahara.

Corrected spellings: By, future, where, would.

In "The Empty Drum", the king is defeated through the wisdom and courage of the people rather than force. His army expects a mighty enemy because of the loud noise of a drum, but when they cut it open it is empty inside. The tale shows that the king's fear and pride were baseless, and he is defeated by the truth that a loud sound hides emptiness.

a. Individuals should be allowed to do whatever they like as long as their actions do not harm others.

b. Risk is acceptable in the workplace provided that proper safety measures are in place and employees are trained to handle it.

Camus says Sisyphus is happy because he accepts his fate, is aware of his situation and finds meaning in the struggle itself: "the struggle itself toward the heights is enough to fill a man's heart." I partly agree: his defiance and acceptance give him a kind of inner freedom, though a life of endless, pointless labour is hard to call truly happy.

a. initial = original (first, at the beginning)

b. offshore = on the sea (away from the coast)

In Manto's "The Dog of Titwal", the Indian and Pakistani soldiers face each other across a mountain on the border. The writer describes them as similar in attitude and anger to show that the conflict is meaningless.

• Same hatred and hostility: both sides are full of anger towards the other, and each fires at the other without real reason, simply because they are told the other is the enemy.
• Same behaviour: both camps are bored, tense and quick to anger, and both see the stray dog Jhun Jhun as an enemy spy. Each side shoots the dog when he comes near because he seems to belong to the other side.
• Common humanity: the soldiers are ordinary men from the same land and culture who have been divided by politics. Describing them alike shows that the supposed "enemy" is no different from oneself.
• Irony and satire: an innocent dog killed by both sides exposes the cruelty and stupidity of war and nationalism, and shows that blind hatred destroys the innocent.

By showing both groups as alike, Manto criticizes the Partition and war itself, and suggests that the division is artificial.

The Sandbox (Edward Albee) is a short absurdist play about ageing, death and the neglect of the old. It is set on a beach, with a sandbox, a toddler, and an old woman (Grandma) who is treated as a burden by her family.

What it symbolizes

• The sandbox stands for the grave. Grandma is placed in it, and the Angel of Death (the Young Man) comes for her, so the play shows life moving towards death.
• Mommy and Daddy symbolize a cold, materialistic and selfish society that discards the elderly once they stop being useful.
• Grandma's death, which is calm and even humorous, criticizes the American family and the empty values of the middle class.

Why the characters have no specific names

• Names like Mommy, Daddy, Grandma and Young Man are role labels. They turn the characters into universal types, so the play applies to any family and any society.
• The lack of individual identity shows that the characters are shallow and lack real emotion, in keeping with the absurdist style.
• It also stresses that ageing, neglect and death are common human experiences, not the story of one family.

Matching words with definitions

• a. disease epidemic - 3. an illness which affects large numbers of people at the same time
• b. drug dependency - 5. being unable to function normally without a particular medicine
• c. preventable illness - 2. a disease which can be avoided, often by a person looking after themselves better
• d. cosmetic surgery - 1. a medical operation which is intended to improve a person's appearance
• e. patent - 4. the official legal right to make or sell an invention for a particular number of years

In "The Right to Control One's Learning", the writer argues that learning is most effective when the learner chooses it. Compulsory education removes that choice.

Drawbacks of compulsory education

• It forces every student into the same curriculum and pace, whatever their interests or abilities.
• Students learn to obey and memorize for exams instead of learning out of curiosity, so motivation and creativity decline.
• It treats learners as passive receivers, which weakens independent thinking and responsibility.
• Students who are forced to attend may resent school and learn little, or drop out mentally.
• It values grades and certificates over real understanding.

How the drawbacks can be minimized or eliminated

• Give students more choice in subjects, projects and methods of learning.
• Make the curriculum flexible and linked to real life and individual interests.
• Replace rote learning and exam pressure with discussion, problem solving and continuous assessment.
• Treat teachers as guides who support self-directed learning, and allow learners to take part in decisions about their own education.
• Offer alternative routes such as vocational and open learning.

Matching adjectives with definitions

• 1. abstract - e. relating to ideas, not to real things
• 2. decorative - c. made to look attractive
• 3. avant-garde - d. ideas and styles that are very original and modern
• 4. monumental - a. very big
• 5. figurative - b. showing people or things in a similar way to real life

Noun phrases

• a. a list of traditional dishes
• b. television cookery programs
• c. a noticeable increase in allergies and diabetes
• d. a great deal of preparation time (also acceptable: a great deal of time and preparation)
• e. a variety of new fruits

E. E. Cummings's "in Just-" is built on a contrast between the carefree energy of childhood and the dull, tired condition of adult life.

Active childhood

• The setting is a "mud-luscious" and "puddle-wonderful" spring. The children, "eddieandbill" and "bettyandisbel", play marbles, hop-scotch and jump-rope.
• Compound words such as "mud-luscious" and joined names like "eddieandbill" imitate the speed and excitement of children's play.
• The whistling balloonman calls them, and they "come running". They respond to the world with joy and curiosity.

Lethargic manhood

• The balloonman is "lame", which suggests an ageing, limping adult, a figure who is slow and not as lively as the children.
• Adulthood is shown as a time when the energy and wonder of spring are lost, and when the world is seen more coldly. Some readers also see the balloonman as a sinister figure luring innocence towards experience.

The poem's playful spacing, lack of capital letters and unusual punctuation reflect childhood's freedom, and the contrast makes the reader value the spontaneity of childhood.

In his speech, Chief Seattle responds to the American government's offer to buy the land of his tribe. His speech expresses a deep spiritual attachment to land and nature.

Views on land

• Land is sacred. Every part of it, including hills, rivers, trees and air, is holy to his people because it holds the memory and the lives of their ancestors.
• Land cannot be bought or sold like property. He asks how one can buy or sell the sky or the warmth of the land.
• Humans belong to the earth; the earth does not belong to them. "All things are connected."

Views on religion

• His people's religion is tied to nature and to the spirits of the dead, who never fully leave the land they loved.
• It is a living tradition passed down by elders through dreams and visions, not a written law as the white men's religion is. He asks for respect for graves and for sacred places.

Views on cultural pride

• He speaks with dignity. He refuses to accept that his people are inferior, recalls their past greatness and says the white man will not remain apart from them, because they are all brothers under the same God.
• He accepts the loss of land for the sake of peace but insists that the dead and the traditions must be respected.

Comparison with the values of Nepali people

• Like Chief Seattle, Nepalis respect nature. Rivers, mountains, trees and animals are worshipped (the Himalayas, Bagmati and Ganga, peepal and tulsi), and the land is called "mother".
• Ancestor worship, such as shraddha and the remembrance of the dead, matches Seattle's belief in the spirits of ancestors.
• Nepalis too take pride in their culture, festivals, languages and identity, and many communities (indigenous groups, Sherpa, Tharu and others) link their identity with land and forests.
• The difference is that Nepali society is more settled and land is also treated as private property that is bought, sold and inherited, whereas for Seattle it was never individually owned.

Overall, the Nepali outlook shares Seattle's reverence for nature, ancestors and cultural pride, though modern attitudes towards property and development are weakening it.

Many people believe in "high risk, high reward". This is often true in business and investment, but not always.

Arguments for

• Finance: investments with higher risk, such as shares and start-ups, offer higher expected returns than a bank deposit. Risk-takers who invest early in a successful business can gain enormously.
• Career: changing jobs, starting a business or moving abroad may lead to faster growth, higher pay and new skills. Those who never leave their comfort zone may stagnate.
• Personal life: speaking up, trying new things and moving to a new place bring experience, confidence and opportunities.
• Innovators and entrepreneurs have achieved success only by accepting uncertainty.

Arguments against

• A bigger risk also means a bigger chance of loss. Many start-ups fail, and gambling or speculation can destroy savings.
• Reward is not guaranteed. Success also depends on skill, planning, timing and luck.
• Losses can hurt families, health and relationships, and some losses cannot be recovered.
• Careful, steady approaches (diversification, savings, and continuous learning) often give reliable growth.

My opinion Bigger risks can lead to greater rewards, but only when they are calculated risks. A person should assess the possible loss, take only the risk that can be afforded, prepare with knowledge and keep a back-up plan. Reckless risk is not courage; it is gambling. So the best path is balanced: take well-planned risks while protecting basic security.

Amina, the central female character of the text, stands for the many women who are silenced, dominated and treated as lesser beings in male-controlled families and societies.

How Amina represents women under patriarchy

• She has no real voice or freedom of choice in decisions about her life, such as marriage, work and movement. Male family members take the decisions.
• She is expected to obey, serve and sacrifice. Her duties are housework and care, and her feelings are not respected.
• She suffers emotional and sometimes physical abuse and is blamed for the family's problems.
• She is financially dependent and denied education and opportunity, which keeps her powerless.
• Her suffering is accepted by the society as normal, so she is a symbol of all women who live under such norms.

Why we sympathize with her

• She is innocent and does nothing to deserve ill-treatment.
• Her patience, silence and endurance show her inner strength but also her helplessness.
• Her dreams are crushed by the people who should have loved and protected her.
• Her story reminds us that equality, education and respect for women are needed for a just society.

Therefore Amina is both a victim of patriarchy and a call for change.

A green environment means clean air and water, trees, parks and a balanced ecosystem. It is vital for people and the planet.

Importance for health

• Trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide and dust and release oxygen, which reduces respiratory diseases such as asthma.
• Green spaces reduce stress, depression and anxiety, and encourage walking and exercise, which reduces obesity and heart disease.
• Clean water and soil support safe food and fewer water-borne diseases.

Importance for communities

• Parks and gardens give people places to meet, play and relax, which strengthens social bonds.
• Greenery reduces noise, heat and flooding, and raises property values.
• Green industries (organic farming, recycling, eco-tourism, renewable energy) create jobs.

Importance for the planet

• Forests store carbon and protect biodiversity, watersheds and soil from erosion.
• A healthy environment keeps ecosystems and food chains stable.

Eco-friendly practices and their role against pollution and climate change

• Planting trees and protecting forests absorb carbon dioxide.
• Using solar, hydro and wind power instead of fossil fuels cuts greenhouse gas emissions.
• Public transport, cycling and electric vehicles reduce air pollution.
• Reducing, reusing and recycling waste, and banning single-use plastics, reduce landfill and water pollution.
• Water saving, organic farming and energy-efficient buildings conserve resources.

For Nepal, whose people depend on forests, rivers and glaciers, being green is essential in order to face air pollution in cities, melting glaciers and floods. Every individual, community and government has a duty to protect it for future generations.

(a) Key elements of an effective thesis statement, and how Bulbul used them

An effective thesis statement:

• is clear and specific, stating one main idea and not a vague topic;
• is arguable, taking a position that can be supported or challenged;
• is concise, usually one or two sentences;
• is focused, giving the scope and direction of the essay;
• is placed in the introduction and guides every later paragraph.

Bulbul's thesis is: "Transformational leadership, which focuses on inspiration and motivation, generally improves organizational performance compared to transactional leadership, which relies on rewards and punishments." It names the two leadership styles, takes a clear position (transformational is better), defines each style briefly, and limits the claim to organizational performance. His first paragraph, second paragraph and conclusion all return to this claim, and he rechecked it during revision.

(b) Importance of paragraph structure, and Bulbul's organization

Paragraph structure is important because it makes each idea easy to find and follow, keeps the writing unified (one idea per paragraph), and shows how each point supports the thesis. A usual structure has a topic sentence, supporting details or evidence, explanation, and a closing or linking sentence.

Bulbul gives one paragraph to each leadership style. The first paragraph opens with the topic sentence "Transformational leadership is crucial for creating an environment of trust and innovation", explains how such leaders build teamwork, and supports it with Bass and Avolio (1994). The second paragraph begins "On the other hand, transactional leadership..." and explains compliance through rewards and punishments, its short-term benefit and long-term weakness, and supports this with Judge and Piccolo (2004). The paragraphs are parallel and make a clear comparison. The essay as a whole follows introduction with thesis, body paragraphs and conclusion.

(c) Importance of transitions, and examples used by Bulbul

Transitions connect sentences and paragraphs so that the reader can follow the logic without a break. They signal addition, contrast, cause, example or conclusion, and they make the essay coherent and easy to read.

Bulbul used "however", "in contrast" and "additionally" to move between ideas. Other connecting phrases in his text are "On the other hand" (to introduce the contrasting style), "For instance" (to introduce evidence) and "In conclusion" (to signal the summary).

(d) The revision process and strategies to improve a first draft

Revision is the stage of re-seeing and improving the content, organization and clarity of a draft, while editing corrects language and style. Good writing is rarely produced in one attempt. Strategies for students:

• Leave the draft for some time, then re-read it with fresh eyes, or read it aloud.
• Check that the thesis is clear and that every paragraph supports it; remove or move off-topic material.
• Check the order of paragraphs and the strength of topic sentences and evidence.
• Add transitions and vary sentence structure for flow.
• Edit for grammar, spelling, punctuation, word choice and citation format.
• Use a checklist or rubric, and ask a peer or teacher for feedback.
• Revise in stages (big ideas first, then sentences, then proofreading).

Bulbul followed this process when he revisited his thesis, checked clarity, coherence and accuracy, and revised several times before submitting.