Nepalese Society and Politics

History is the study of the human past based on written records, inscriptions, coins and other documents, so it covers the period for which written evidence exists.

Pre-history is the period before writing was invented. It is known only through archaeological evidence such as stone tools, bones, caves and pottery, and covers the Stone Age.

Rise of the Rana regime (1846-1951)

1. Weak monarchy and court factionalism: after Rana Bahadur Shah and Bhimsen Thapa, kings were weak or minors and the court was split among rival groups.
2. Kot Massacre (1846): Jung Bahadur Kunwar killed his rivals in the Kot, became Prime Minister and removed opponents from power.
3. Sanad of 1856: gave hereditary prime ministership and full powers to Jung Bahadur's family, reducing the king to a figurehead.
4. British support: Jung Bahadur's help in the 1857 mutiny won British friendship, which strengthened the regime.
5. Control of army and administration and the policy of keeping people isolated and uneducated.

Downfall of the Rana regime

1. Internal family rivalry: constant conflict among Ranas and the Shumsher-Jung split weakened it.
2. Oppression and economic exploitation: heavy taxation, no education, no political rights, and corruption caused discontent.
3. Political awareness: movements by Praja Parishad (1936), Nepal Praja Panchayat, and later Nepali Congress (1950) spread demand for change.
4. Influence of Indian independence (1947): the departure of the British removed the regime's main supporter, and India favoured democracy.
5. Role of King Tribhuvan: his flight to India (1950) and the armed revolution of the Nepali Congress.
6. Delhi Compromise (1951): brought the end of Ranas and the restoration of the Shah monarchy and democracy.

The Rana regime (1846-1951) was established by Janga Bahadur Rana after the Kot Massacre. Its rise had these causes.

1. Political instability in the court: After the death of Bhimsen Thapa and the weak rule of King Rajendra, there were constant conflicts between the court factions (Pande, Thapa, Basnyat) and the queens.
2. Weak monarchy: Kings were young, weak or divided, and queens, especially Queen Rajya Laxmi, took part in the intrigues. Real power passed to those who commanded the army.
3. Kot Massacre (1846): After the killing of Gagan Singh, Janga Bahadur slaughtered many nobles and opponents in the Kot, removing rivals at once.
4. Support of the army and British goodwill: Janga Bahadur had control of the army and he won the favour of the British through his visit to Britain in 1850 and help during the 1857 mutiny.
5. Personal ability: He was ambitious, clever and daring, and he made the post of prime minister hereditary through the Roll of Succession, keeping the king as a figurehead.
6. Lack of strong opposition: No organised public or party opposed him, and the nobility had been weakened.

Historicity means the quality of being historical: the authenticity or factual reality of a person, event or tradition, as supported by reliable evidence such as inscriptions, documents and archaeological findings, as opposed to myth or legend. For example, scholars examine the historicity of the Kirata kings or of Lord Buddha's birth at Lumbini.

Ram Shah (ruled Gorkha 1606-1633) is remembered for his reforms in administration and justice. He introduced standard weights and measures, and the system of fair trade, and improved the judicial system so that justice was impartial and the people were happy under his rule. He is regarded as a just ruler who strengthened Gorkha and prepared the base for its later expansion.

The statement is attributed to the Shah court in the time of King Rana Bahadur Shah. It expresses the king's complete trust in Bhimsen Thapa, who held real power as Mukhtiyar (prime minister) from 1806 to 1837 and led the administration, the army and the Anglo-Nepal War. It means that the survival of the state at that time depended on his leadership, since the kings were minors or weak.

Two regents during the Shah dynasty:

1. Bahadur Shah, regent for King Rana Bahadur Shah (1785-1794).
2. Queen Rajrajeshwari Devi, regent for her infant grandson King Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah (from 1799).

Four sources of family conflict in the Rana family:

1. Rivalry over succession to the post of Prime Minister (seniority in the "Roll of Succession").
2. Conflict among brothers and between the sons of Jung Bahadur and his brothers (e.g. the Kot-type killings and the Shumsher coup of 1885).
3. Division of Ranas into A, B and C classes by birth and mother's status.
4. Struggle for wealth, property and army control, and personal ambition and jealousy.

Main objectives of the People's Movement 1990:

• To end the party-less Panchayat system and restore multiparty democracy.
• To lift the ban on political parties and establish a constitutional monarchy.
• To guarantee fundamental human rights, freedom of speech and press, and the rule of law.
• To make the government accountable to the people through free elections and a new constitution.

Two causes of the Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16):

1. Border disputes over Butwal and Syuraj in the Terai, which the British claimed after Nepal occupied them.
2. The British East India Company's imperial ambition to expand its trade and territory and to stop Nepal's expansion (also to open a trade route to Tibet).

Importance of studying Nepalese history and politics in BBA:

1. It helps managers understand the country's social, economic and political background and so make better business decisions.
2. It builds awareness of political systems, policies and stability that affect business, and develops a sense of national identity and responsible citizenship.

CPA stands for the Comprehensive Peace Accord, signed on 21 November 2006 between the Government of Nepal (Seven Party Alliance) and the CPN (Maoist), ending the decade-long armed conflict.

Knowledge of history is important for business administration for these reasons:

1. Understanding the business environment: the present economic, political and social conditions are products of the past. Knowing how trade, industry and policy developed in Nepal helps managers read the environment.
2. Learning from past successes and failures: past experiences of firms, industries and governments (for example, the closure of public enterprises or the nationalisation and privatisation phases) guide strategic choices and help avoid repeating mistakes.
3. Forecasting and planning: historical trends in markets, prices and policies help predict the future and plan.
4. Understanding culture and consumers: history explains the customs, values and consumer behaviour of different communities, supporting marketing and human resource management.
5. Appreciating political and policy change: regime changes (Rana, Panchayat, democracy, republic) changed trade, taxation and investment rules; managers must understand them to manage risk and political relations.
6. Developing analytical and decision skills: studying causes and effects builds critical thinking.
7. Ethics and national responsibility: it builds a sense of responsibility towards society and the nation.

Therefore history gives managers perspective, foresight and sound judgement.

This message reflects the spirit of King Prithvi Narayan Shah, the unifier of Nepal, who stressed that a nation is built on the sacrifices of earlier generations, and that present generations must protect and develop what they inherit.

My views:

1. Respect for ancestors: Prithvi Narayan Shah's ancestors in Gorkha, such as Ram Shah and Narabhupal Shah, laid the base of the state. Remembering them builds gratitude and national pride.
2. Continuity of national effort: unification was a long process that he completed through military skill, diplomacy and economic policy. His successors had to preserve it.
3. Lessons from his Dibya Upadesh: he advised protecting independence, keeping the country a "garden of four varnas and thirty-six castes", self-reliance in trade and industry, and cautious relations with neighbours. These are still relevant to national development and business.
4. Duty for today: following their footsteps means unity, honesty, hard work, protecting sovereignty and promoting economic progress through enterprise and good governance.

Thus the message is a call for patriotism and responsibility, which every citizen, including future managers, should follow.

After the decline of the Khas Malla kingdom (about the 14th century), western Nepal broke into many small states, known as the Baise and Chaubise principalities.

Baise (22 principalities)

• Located in the Karnali-Bheri region in western Nepal, formed from the break-up of the Khas (Jumla) kingdom.
• Notable states were Jumla, Dullu, Doti, Achham, Dailekh, Bajhang, Bajura and Jajarkot.
• They were small, frequently at war with each other, and politically unstable.

Chaubise (24 principalities)

• Located in the Gandaki and Narayani area of central-western Nepal.
• Notable states: Gorkha, Lamjung, Kaski, Tanahun, Palpa, Syangja, Parbat, Galkot and Nuwakot.
• They were ruled by Magar, Gurung and Thakuri/Rajput rulers, with Palpa the strongest.

Features and significance

• Rivalry, lack of unity and weak armies kept them divided.
• They had local administrative systems and kept trade routes open.
• Their disunity helped Prithvi Narayan Shah of Gorkha to conquer them during Nepal's unification.

The Panchayat system (1960-1990) began when King Mahendra dissolved the elected government and banned parties in 1960. Its downfall resulted from several causes:

1. Ban on political parties, which denied people freedom and created resentment, with leaders jailed or exiled.
2. Referendum of 1980 only narrowly kept the system (with reforms), showing weak support.
3. Corruption, inefficiency and economic hardship: poverty and inequality grew, and the elite enjoyed benefits.
4. Indian trade and transit embargo of 1989, which badly hit the economy and made the government unpopular.
5. Influence of world democratic wave: the fall of communism in Eastern Europe encouraged democracy movements.
6. The Jana Andolan of 1990: the joint movement of the Nepali Congress and the United Left Front, with mass protest, forced King Birendra to lift the ban on parties on 6 April 1990 and the system ended; a new constitution in 1990 restored multiparty democracy.

Under the Constitution of Nepal, 2015 (Article 217), each Palika (rural municipality and municipality) has a Judicial Committee to settle disputes under its jurisdiction. Its structure is:

• Coordinator: the Vice-chairperson of the rural municipality, or the Deputy Mayor of the municipality.
• Two members: elected by the village or municipal assembly from among its own members.

Thus the committee has three members. It settles local disputes (for example over irrigation, boundaries, wages, and grazing) and promotes mediation as per the law, under the Local Government Operation Act 2017. Its decisions can be appealed to the District Court.

Political parties are the main actors in establishing and strengthening democracy in Nepal. Their roles are:

1. Representation and interest aggregation: they bring together the demands of different groups and communities and present them in government.
2. Contesting elections and forming governments: by taking part in free and fair elections, they give citizens a peaceful way to choose and change governments.
3. Policy making and legislation: they make programmes and manifestos and pass laws in parliament.
4. Opposition and accountability: the opposition checks government through parliamentary debate and committees.
5. Political education and participation: they raise awareness and train leaders and citizens.
6. Leadership recruitment: they produce and prepare leaders for local, provincial and federal levels.
7. Constitution making and consensus: parties jointly led the 1990 movement, the 2006 movement, the Comprehensive Peace Accord and the Constitution of 2015.
8. Inclusion and federalism: they provide for the inclusion of women, Dalits and marginalised groups.

To institutionalise democracy, parties must practise internal democracy, avoid corruption and respect the constitution.

The Malla kingdom of the Kathmandu Valley, united under Yaksha Malla (c. 1428-1482), was divided among his sons and relatives after his death into the separate kingdoms of Bhaktapur, Kathmandu (Kantipur), Banepa and later Patan (Lalitpur, by the late 16th century).

Causes

1. Yaksha Malla's partition: he divided the kingdom among his sons and daughters, following family custom.
2. Joint-family and succession disputes: no rule of single succession, and rivalry among brothers and relatives.
3. Ambitious nobles and ministers who preferred smaller states in which they held power.
4. Geographical and administrative difficulty in controlling a large territory with poor communication.
5. Weak central authority after Yaksha Malla and the tendency of regional rulers to become independent.

Consequences

1. Political weakness and constant wars among the three kingdoms for land, water and trade, which drained resources.
2. Competition in art, architecture and culture: each king built palaces, temples and squares, giving us the Durbar Squares which are world heritage today.
3. Economic effects: trade with Tibet and India continued and flourished at times, but disputes over trade routes and tariffs also arose.
4. Social and religious development: festivals, Newar culture and religious tolerance were encouraged.
5. Foreign intervention: rulers sought help from outsiders against each other (for example, Gorkha), which invited danger.
6. Easy conquest: disunity made it possible for Prithvi Narayan Shah to conquer the valley by 1769, ending Malla rule.

Hence the division brought cultural brilliance but political ruin.

Prithvi Narayan Shah (1723-1775), King of Gorkha from 1743, is regarded as the founder of modern Nepal. His roles in the unification were as follows.

1. Vision and leadership. He dreamt of uniting the scattered Baise and Chaubise principalities and the three Malla kingdoms of the Kathmandu Valley into one strong state. He called Nepal "a garden of four castes and thirty-six sub-castes", showing his idea of a united, inclusive nation.

2. Military organization. He built a disciplined, loyal Gorkhali army, trained it, and obtained arms from India. He used guerrilla tactics, surprise attacks and sieges suited to the hill terrain.

3. Diplomacy and alliances. He sought help and marriage or friendly ties with neighbouring rulers, isolated his enemies, and gained skilled advisers such as Kalu Pande, Shivaram Singh Basnyat and Bamsa Raj Pande.

4. Economic strategy (blockade). After the failed attack on Nuwakot (1737 by Nara Bhupal), he captured Nuwakot in 1744 and put the Kathmandu Valley under economic blockade by controlling the trade routes through Kuti and Kerung. Kirtipur (1764-66), Patan (1768) and Kathmandu and Bhaktapur (1768-69) fell to him.

5. Conquests. He conquered Nuwakot (1744), Kirtipur (1766), Kathmandu (Indra Jatra, 1768), Patan (1768) and Bhaktapur (1769), and extended Gorkha's influence to the east up to Chaudandi and the Kirat region.

6. Administration and foreign policy. He centralized administration, gave importance to justice, trade and agriculture, and followed a policy of self-reliance. In his Dibya Upadesh he advised a policy of neutrality: Nepal as "a yam between two boulders" (India and China), and protection of the country's sovereignty.

Thus through military skill, diplomacy and economic planning he created a unified Nepal, whose independence was kept even against the British East India Company.

Background. The Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1923 was signed on 21 December 1923 at Singha Durbar, Kathmandu, between Nepal (Prime Minister Chandra Shumsher Rana) and British India (Lt. Col. W. F. T. O'Connor, British Envoy). It replaced the Sugauli-era relationship, which had made Nepal's position unclear, by formally recognizing Nepal's independence.

Main provisions

1. Perpetual peace and friendship between the two governments; each recognized the other's independence.
2. Each side would inform the other of anything that might harm good relations, and both would act to remove it.
3. Neither would exercise any interference in the internal affairs of the other, nor allow hostile activity against the other from its territory.
4. Nepal was given free right to import arms, ammunition and war material through British India for her own security, provided no re-export was allowed; Britain would help in this.
5. Both agreed to take steps against each other's enemies and to treat each other's subjects fairly in matters of trade and movement.
6. The treaty was to be reviewed and could be ended by either side after due notice (one year's notice).

Significance

• Britain explicitly recognized Nepal as an independent sovereign state, a diplomatic gain for Chandra Shumsher.
• Nepal gained the right to import arms, and later it helped Nepal to take part in international relations and join the League of Nations (1920 earlier).
• It showed Nepal's friendliness with Britain while maintaining self-rule, and later it was replaced by the Treaty of 1950 with independent India.

A constitution is the fundamental law of a country. The development of Nepal's constitution began only in the twentieth century and passed through seven constitutional documents.

1. Government of Nepal Act, 1948 (2004 B.S.). Issued by Padma Shumsher Rana under pressure of political change. It provided a Panchayat system, a bicameral legislature, an independent judiciary and fundamental rights, but was never implemented because Padma Shumsher resigned.

2. Interim Government of Nepal Act, 1951 (2007 B.S.). Issued after the end of Rana rule. It gave the king executive power and set up a cabinet, with a plan for a Constituent Assembly. The elections were not held.

3. Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal, 1959 (2015 B.S.). The first democratic constitution, drafted by Sir Ivor Jennings and others. It created a bicameral parliament and parliamentary government with a constitutional monarch. B. P. Koirala became the first elected Prime Minister. King Mahendra dissolved it in December 1960.

4. Constitution of Nepal, 1962 (2019 B.S.). It established the party-less Panchayat system with the king as the source of sovereign power. It was amended in 1967, 1975 and 1980 (the 1980 amendment after a referendum allowed direct election).

5. Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal, 1990 (2047 B.S.). After the People's Movement of 1990, a multiparty democracy and constitutional monarchy were set up, with sovereignty vested in the Nepali people, bicameral parliament and fundamental rights.

6. Interim Constitution of Nepal, 2007 (2063 B.S.). After the Jana Andolan II of 2006 and the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, it ended the monarchy (2008) and made Nepal a federal democratic republic through the first Constituent Assembly.

7. Constitution of Nepal, 2015 (2072 B.S.). Promulgated on 20 September 2015 (3 Asoj 2072) by the second Constituent Assembly. It declared Nepal a secular, inclusive, federal democratic republic with seven provinces and three tiers of government (federal, provincial, local).

The development thus shows movement from an autocratic to a democratic, republican and federal state.

(a) Balancing geopolitical threats. Bhimsen Thapa was Mukhtiyar when the British East India Company was expanding towards Nepal, while Tibet, China and the Sikh and Maratha powers were also factors. He tried to keep Nepal independent through diplomacy: he sought alliances against the British with the Marathas, Sikhs, Gwalior and other Indian rulers, and also asked China for help. Though the diplomacy was partly unsuccessful, and the Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16) ended with the Treaty of Sugauli in which Nepal lost territory, he preserved Nepal's independence, and after the war kept the country stable and ready to avoid further direct British control.

(b) Administrative and economic reforms. He reorganized the civil administration, creating regular offices and a more orderly system of revenue collection and record keeping, and the justice system with fixed rules. He centralized the decision-making and put loyal family members in key positions. In economy, he promoted trade, developed land revenue and mines, encouraged production and kept state finance in order. His policies built a strong base for the later development of the state.

(c) Military modernization. He modernized the army in European style, with drill, discipline, regular salary and training, and arranged guns and gunpowder (an arms factory at Kathmandu). This made Nepal's army stronger and more disciplined, raising its capacity for defence and giving the country confidence; it also prepared Nepal for the later wars, and the army became an important pillar of the state. His view was that "a stronger army makes a stronger country".

(d) Causes of downfall. (i) Excessive centralization of power in his own family and favouring of relatives, causing jealousy; (ii) suppression of dissent and political enemies; (iii) defeat in the war with the British and the resulting loss of prestige; (iv) conspiracies of opponents in the court, such as Ranjang Pande and Queen Samrajya Laxmi Devi; (v) the accusation of poisoning the infant prince (Crown prince Devendra Bikram Shah's death) which led to his arrest in 1837; and (vi) the declining support of the king as the king grew up. He was removed in 1837 and died in 1839 (suicide in prison).

The Greek writer Herodotus (c. 484-425 BC) is known as the "father of history". His work The Histories was the first systematic and critical account of past events, mainly the Greco-Persian wars. He collected information through enquiry, travel and evidence, and arranged it into a connected narrative rather than a collection of myths. The word "history" itself comes from the Greek historia, meaning enquiry.

Dolaji is a traditional custom of the Gorkha region, associated with the old hill principality and the royal court, in which the community took part in a ceremonial or collective service for the ruler under local custom. It is remembered as one of the old practices of the hill states of the pre-unification era. Like other such customs, it reflects the way the hill kingdoms organised social obligations before the modern state.

Before the unification, the hill region of western Nepal was divided into small principalities known as the Baise (22) and Chaubise (24) states.

• Baise Rajya: The twenty-two principalities in the Karnali region of far-western Nepal, such as Jumla, Dullu, Doti, Achham, Bajhang, Bajura and Dailekh. They arose from the break-up of the Khas (Malla) empire of Karnali-Jumla.
• Chaubise Rajya: The twenty-four principalities in the Gandaki region, such as Gorkha, Lamjung, Kaski, Tanahun, Palpa, Syangja, Parbat, Salyan and Rukum.

They were small, independent and often at war with one another, which made unification easier for Prithvi Narayan Shah.

Prithvi Narayan Shah attacked the Kathmandu Valley for two main reasons:

1. Economic and strategic reasons: The Valley controlled the trade route between India and Tibet. By capturing it he could gain wealth and make Gorkha strong, and the blockade of the trade route helped bring the Valley under his control.
2. Political reasons: The three Malla kingdoms (Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur) were weak, divided and quarrelling, and so offered an opportunity to unify the country and prevent foreign powers such as the British East India Company from gaining influence.

Two key provisions of the Peace and Friendship Treaty of 1923 between Nepal and British India:

1. Both governments recognised each other's independence, both internal and external, and agreed to perpetual peace and friendship.
2. Nepal was permitted to import arms, ammunition and war materials through British India for her own use, and each government agreed to inform the other of any friction with neighbouring states.

The major objectives of the People's Movement of 2062/63 B.S. (2006) were:

1. To end the direct rule of King Gyanendra, restore the dissolved House of Representatives and establish people's sovereignty.
2. To end the armed conflict and bring the Maoists into peaceful politics through the Comprehensive Peace Agreement.
3. To hold elections for a Constituent Assembly to write a new constitution, and to move towards a federal democratic republic.

Two reasons for the rise of Janga Bahadur Rana:

1. Kot Massacre (1846): After the murder of Gagan Singh and the quarrel in the royal court, Janga Bahadur took the chance to kill many nobles and rivals at the Kot, which cleared the way for his power.
2. Weak monarchy and court conspiracy: King Rajendra and the queens were quarrelling, and the Pande and Thapa factions were weak. Janga Bahadur's military support and cleverness let him become prime minister and make the post hereditary.

Two causes of the end of the Panchayat system (1990):

1. Denial of political freedom: Political parties were banned and people were denied basic rights, so the Nepali Congress and the left parties led the People's Movement of 1990.
2. Corruption and economic problems: Bad governance, corruption, the Indian trade and transit blockade of 1989 and rising prices created popular anger, and the government could not meet people's demands.

Four functions of the District Development Committee (DDC):

1. Prepare and carry out district-level development plans in coordination with the village and municipal bodies.
2. Coordinate the work of government offices and projects in the district.
3. Help build local infrastructure such as roads, bridges, irrigation, drinking water and electricity.
4. Mobilise local resources and promote education, health, agriculture and the protection of the environment.

History is the study of past events, and business students gain from it in the following ways.

1. Learning from past decisions: Past successes and failures of firms, industries and governments help managers avoid repeating mistakes and make better decisions.
2. Understanding the business environment: Knowledge of the economic, political and social history of Nepal (for example the growth of trade routes, the Rana period's industrial policy, and liberalisation after 1990) explains why today's markets, laws and institutions are as they are.
3. Understanding culture and customers: History explains the values, traditions and social groups of a country. This helps in marketing, human resource management and dealing with a diverse workforce.
4. Developing analytical skills: Studying sources and cause and effect builds critical thinking, research and writing skills that managers need.
5. Leadership and ethics: Lessons from the lives of leaders such as Prithvi Narayan Shah show how vision, strategy and honest rule affect success.
6. Forecasting trends: Knowing how cycles of boom and recession, or of political change, have occurred helps in planning and forecasting.

This message comes from Prithivi Narayan Shah's Dibya Upadesh, in which he warned that bribery harms both the giver and the receiver and the state.

Why it is right.

• Legal view: Giving and taking bribes is a crime. It breaks the rule of law and gives unfair advantage to those who can pay.
• Moral view: It is also a sin because it is a betrayal of trust and of public duty. It makes the poor suffer and destroys justice.
• Economic view: Corruption raises the cost of doing business, discourages investment, wastes public money and weakens the country's development.
• Social view: It reduces people's faith in institutions and spreads dishonest habits.

Relevance today. Nepal still ranks poorly on corruption indices. Business students and future managers should therefore resist the temptation to offer or accept bribes and should follow transparency, merit and ethics. Strong laws (such as the Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority), honest leadership and public awareness are all needed to end it.

Conclusion. The message is a timeless lesson in public ethics. If leaders and citizens followed it, the nation would be more just and prosperous.

The Malla period (c. 1200-1769) saw considerable economic development in the Kathmandu Valley, especially under rulers such as Jayasthiti Malla and Yaksha Malla.

1. Trade: The Valley was a centre of trade between India and Tibet. The Mallas encouraged trade, built rest houses (sattals, pati) and kept the trade routes safe. Nepali merchants lived in Lhasa.
2. Coinage: The Mallas issued their own silver coin, the mohar, for trade with Tibet. A standard currency made trade easier and enriched the treasury.
3. Agriculture and land: Land was measured and classified, irrigation canals were built, and land revenue was fixed. Guthi lands were set aside to support temples and public works.
4. Handicrafts and industry: Metalwork, woodcarving, painting, pottery and weaving were encouraged, and artisans received royal patronage.
5. Taxation and public works: A regular system of taxes and the construction of roads, bridges, water spouts (dhunge dhara) and markets supported the economy.
6. Guthi system: It organised the use of land and income for religious, social and public purposes.

Delhi Agreement. The Delhi Agreement (also called the Delhi Compromise) was a compromise reached in Delhi in February 1951 (Magh-Falgun 2007 B.S.) among King Tribhuvan, the Rana Prime Minister Mohan Shumsher and the Nepali Congress, with the mediation of the Indian Government (Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru). It ended the armed revolution of 2007 B.S. and the Rana regime.

Main provisions.

1. The Rana system of rule was ended, and the king was restored as the head of state, with sovereignty vested in the monarchy.
2. A Constituent Assembly was to be elected by the people to frame a new constitution.
3. An interim cabinet was formed with five members of the Rana side and five of the Nepali Congress, headed by Mohan Shumsher Rana as Prime Minister.
4. Fundamental rights and civil liberties were to be guaranteed, and the Nepali Congress cadres were to stop fighting.
5. The Rana family kept their property and privileges.

Importance. It brought the end of 104 years of Rana rule and began the democratic era, although the promise of a constituent assembly was not met until 2008.

The Constitution of Nepal 2015 (2072 B.S.), promulgated on 20 September 2015 (3 Ashwin 2072), has these fundamental features.

1. Federal democratic republic: Nepal is an independent, indivisible, sovereign, secular, inclusive, democratic, socialism-oriented federal democratic republican state.
2. Three tiers of government: The federal, seven provincial and 753 local governments, with the powers shared among them.
3. Sovereignty of the people: Sovereignty and state authority rest with the Nepali people.
4. Fundamental rights and duties: It contains a wide list of rights, such as the right to equality, freedom, education, health, employment, food and social security, and rights of women, Dalits and children.
5. Parliamentary system: The federal parliament has two houses, the House of Representatives and the National Assembly. The Prime Minister heads the executive and the President is the head of state.
6. Independent judiciary: The Supreme Court, high courts and district courts, with a Judicial Council.
7. Proportional inclusion: Mixed electoral system and inclusive representation for women, Dalits, indigenous groups and others.
8. Directive principles, policies and obligations of the state: Guide state policy on the economy, social justice and the environment.
9. Constitutional bodies: Election Commission, Auditor General, Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority, Public Service Commission and others.

Definition. A constitution is the fundamental law of a country. It sets out the structure of government, the powers and limits of its organs and the rights and duties of citizens. It is the supreme law and all other laws must follow it.

Constitutional development of Nepal.

• Government of Nepal Act, 1948: The first written constitutional document, issued by Padma Shumsher. It promised limited reform but was never fully implemented.
• Interim Government Act, 1951: Issued after the end of Rana rule in 2007 B.S., with the king as head of state.
• Constitution of 1959: The first constitution of Nepal, introducing a parliamentary system and multiparty democracy.
• Constitution of 1962: Introduced the party-less Panchayat system after the royal coup of 1960.
• Constitution of 1990: Gave a constitutional monarchy and multiparty democracy after the People's Movement.
• Interim Constitution of 2007: Followed the 2006 movement and the peace agreement, and made Nepal a federal democratic republic in 2008.
• Constitution of 2015: Written by the second Constituent Assembly and promulgated on 20 September 2015 as the current constitution.

The Lichchhavi period (c. 400-750 AD) is called the golden period of Nepali history, because of progress in many fields.

1. Political: Lichchhavi kings such as Manadeva, Amshuvarma (Thakuri) and Narendradeva ruled the Valley with an organised government. Ministers (Sarbadandanayak), local assemblies and a clear system of administration existed. Stone inscriptions record the rule, starting with Manadeva's Changu Narayan inscription (464 AD), the earliest dated inscription.
2. Economic: Agriculture was the base, with irrigation and land measurement. Trade with India and Tibet was lively; the Valley was a link between the two. Gold and copper coins such as Manank and Gunank were in use. Taxes were collected regularly.
3. Social: Society was organised but tolerant, with a caste-like division of labour and respect for women. Guthi supported social and religious activities.
4. Religious: Hinduism and Buddhism existed side by side. Temples like Changu Narayan, Pashupati and Swayambhu were patronised, and the Matsyendranath cult grew.
5. Art, architecture and culture: Sculpture in stone and metal, pagoda-style temples, painting and the Sanskrit language flourished. The Kailashkut palace and Bhadradhivas palace of Amshuvarma are remembered.
6. Foreign relations: Princess Bhrikuti married the Tibetan king Songtsen Gampo, taking Buddhism to Tibet. Nepali artisans such as Araniko later went to China.

Evaluation. The Lichchhavi period saw sound government, trade, the arts, religious harmony and international contacts. It is called golden because its achievements formed the basis of later Nepali civilisation. However, some historians note that it remained confined to the Kathmandu Valley and the surrounding region, and the rule of later kings became weak and divided, with strong feudal lords (Samanta).

Background. The Treaty of Sugauli was signed on 2 December 1815 and ratified on 4 March 1816 at the end of the Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16) between Nepal and the East India Company.

Terms and conditions.

1. Nepal gave up the territory west of the Kali River (Kumaun, Garhwal) and the hill areas such as Shimla, and also Sikkim in the east (Mechi).
2. Nepal gave up much of the Terai land between the Mechi and Rapti rivers; part of the Terai was later returned (in 1816 and 1860).
3. Nepal had to accept a British Resident in Kathmandu.
4. Nepal could not employ any European or American subject in her service without the consent of the British.
5. Nepal withdrew claims on the Sikkim territory and agreed to British arbitration in disputes with Sikkim.
6. The British provided a pension to certain Nepali chiefs; Nepal was to keep friendly relations with the Company.

Impact on sovereignty.

• Territorial loss: About one third of Nepal's territory was lost, and the country was reduced roughly to its present size. The loss of the Terai hurt the economy.
• Loss of external freedom: The Resident in Kathmandu and the ban on foreign employees limited Nepal's independence in foreign relations.
• Military and political effect: Nepal's expansionist ambition ended and its army was reduced in importance.
• Positive side: Nepal kept its independence, unlike most Indian states, and the treaty fixed the borders, which helped later preservation of the country.

Conclusion. The treaty hurt Nepal's territory and pride, yet it preserved the core of the independent state.

The People's Movement of 1990 (2046 B.S.) was a joint movement of the Nepali Congress and the United Left Front against the Panchayat system. It began on 18 February 1990 (Falgun 7) and ended on 8 April 1990 when King Birendra agreed to end the party-less system.

Causes.

1. Political suppression: Parties were banned, and there was no freedom of speech or association.
2. Economic crisis: Poverty, unemployment, and the Indian trade and transit blockade of 1989 raised prices and brought hardship.
3. Corruption and misrule: Panchayat officials were seen as corrupt and unaccountable.
4. Influence of world events: The fall of communist regimes in Eastern Europe and the democracy movements around the world inspired the people.
5. Role of political parties and civil society: The Nepali Congress and left parties worked together, and professionals, students and human rights groups gave support.
6. Failure of the Panchayat system to meet people's needs.

Consequences.

1. The Panchayat system and the ban on parties were ended, and multiparty democracy was restored.
2. An interim government under Krishna Prasad Bhattarai was formed.
3. The Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1990 was promulgated, creating a constitutional monarchy with sovereignty vested in the people.
4. General elections in 1991 brought the Nepali Congress to power under G. P. Koirala.
5. Fundamental rights, a free press and an independent judiciary were established.
6. Political instability and frequent changes of government followed, and the Maoist insurgency began in 1996.

Under the Constitution of Nepal 2015 and the Local Government Operation Act 2017, the rural municipality (Gaunpalika) and municipality (Nagarpalika) are the local governments. Their major functions are:

1. Local planning and development: Prepare and implement local plans, budgets and programmes.
2. Local taxes and revenue: Collect property tax, house and land registration fee, business tax, rent tax, entertainment tax, and service charges.
3. Basic and secondary education: Run and manage schools and promote local education.
4. Basic health and sanitation: Operate health posts, run vaccination, waste management and water supply schemes.
5. Local roads and infrastructure: Construct and maintain local roads, bridges, markets and irrigation.
6. Agriculture and animal services: Support farmers with extension services, local livestock and cooperatives.
7. Local justice: The judicial committee settles minor disputes through mediation.
8. Disaster management and the environment: Relief work, watershed protection and environmental management.
9. Registration of vital events: Birth, death, marriage and migration, as well as social security allowances.
10. Culture and tourism: Promote local languages, culture and tourism, and local small industries.

(a) Key military strategies.

• He built a strong, loyal and disciplined Gorkhali army, trained it and equipped it with better arms.
• He used guerrilla tactics and surprise attacks, taking advantage of the hill terrain.
• He captured Nuwakot first (1744), which controlled the Kathmandu-Tibet trade route, then blockaded the Valley's trade to weaken it before attacking.
• He formed alliances and used diplomacy to isolate his enemies, and won the support of capable commanders.
• Kirtipur (1766), Kathmandu (1768), Patan and Bhaktapur (1769) were taken in turn.

(b) Administrative reforms. He made Kathmandu the capital and introduced a centralised administration in place of many small principalities. He appointed trusted officers, kept the existing local systems where useful, strengthened justice and revenue collection, and encouraged loyalty to one state. This reduced rivalry among the local rulers and gave stability and a sense of unity to the new kingdom.

(c) Role of trade and the economy. He wanted Nepal to be self-sufficient. Trade with Tibet and India brought revenue and goods, and he supported local production and discouraged the import of foreign goods that would harm local industry (as in Dibya Upadesh). A strong economy supported the army and the administration, and independence rested on economic strength.

(d) Leadership and sovereignty. He saw the threat from the British East India Company and defeated Captain Kinloch's expedition in 1767. He kept the borders closed to foreign influence and missionaries, described Nepal as "a yam between two boulders" and advised a careful policy toward both the British and China. His vision, discipline and diplomacy allowed Nepal to remain independent.

The sociological perspective is a way of looking at human behaviour by seeing how it is shaped by the society, groups, culture and social structures around the individual. It connects personal experiences to wider social forces.

Types of society:

1. Hunting and gathering society
2. Pastoral society
3. Horticultural society
4. Agrarian society
5. Industrial society
6. Post-industrial (information) society

Ethnicity is the shared cultural identity of a group of people based on common ancestry, language, religion, customs and history, which distinguishes them from other groups in society.

Societal expectation and organisational goal are linked. For example, society expects firms to protect the environment and treat employees fairly, so a company such as a cement factory sets goals of reduced pollution and safe working conditions. By meeting social expectations it gains reputation and customer trust, which helps it achieve its profit goal.

Four features of kinship:

1. It is based on blood (consanguineal) and marriage (affinal) ties.
2. It is universal and found in all societies.
3. It involves rights, duties and obligations among relatives.
4. It is organised through descent, such as patrilineal and matrilineal systems, and regulates marriage, inheritance and residence.

Major forms of interview:

1. Structured (formal) interview
2. Unstructured (informal) interview
3. Semi-structured interview
4. Focused interview
5. Group interview (focus group)
6. Telephone, online and face-to-face interviews, by the method used

Importance of socialization:

1. It teaches the individual the culture, norms, values and language of society.
2. It develops the self and personality.
3. It prepares people for social roles and occupations.
4. It maintains social order and passes culture from one generation to the next.

Three types of power (Max Weber's types of authority):

1. Traditional power
2. Charismatic power
3. Legal-rational power

Functional prerequisites are the basic needs or tasks that every society must meet in order to survive, such as reproduction of members, socialization, production and distribution of goods, maintenance of order and a shared system of meaning. The term is used in functionalist theory, for example Parsons's AGIL scheme (adaptation, goal attainment, integration and latency).

Sociology emerged in nineteenth-century Europe through the combination of several developments.

1. The Industrial Revolution: Factories, urbanisation, new classes (workers and capitalists), poverty and slums raised new social problems that needed scientific study.
2. The French Revolution (1789): It destroyed the old order and raised questions about social order and change, which Comte and others tried to answer.
3. The Enlightenment and the rise of science: Belief in reason and the scientific method led thinkers to apply it to society.
4. Growth of cities and social disorder: Migration, crime and changes in family life created interest in understanding social order.
5. Colonialism and cultural contact: Contact with other societies encouraged comparison of cultures.
6. Contribution of early thinkers: Auguste Comte, who coined the term "sociology" in 1838, and later Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim and Max Weber.

Sociology of organizations is the branch of sociology that studies organisations as social systems: their structure, culture, power, authority, roles, relations with the environment and the behaviour of people in them. It asks how organisations are formed, how they function and how they change.

Why networks and network analysis matter for managers.

1. A network is the set of ties among people or groups. Network analysis maps these links and shows who communicates with whom.
2. It reveals the informal structure that differs from the formal chart, including key influencers and isolated persons.
3. It helps managers to improve communication, spread information and speed up decision making.
4. It helps in team building, in spotting bottlenecks and in managing change.
5. It supports external links with suppliers, customers and partners, which give access to resources, information and opportunities.
6. It helps in recruitment and career planning through social capital.

Social class is a division of society into groups based on economic position, such as income, wealth, occupation and education, with similar life chances and lifestyles. Marx saw classes in terms of ownership of the means of production, and Weber added status and power.

In Nepali society.

• Traditionally, Nepali society was stratified by caste (Hindu varna hierarchy under the Muluki Ain of 1854) and ethnicity as well as class, and the two overlapped.
• Upper class: Large landowners, top politicians, bureaucrats, big business families and senior professionals.
• Middle class: Teachers, civil servants, small traders, professionals and, increasingly, remittance-receiving households in urban areas.
• Lower class: Poor farmers, landless labourers, informal workers, and marginalised groups such as Dalits and some indigenous peoples.
• Class position is affected by caste, ethnicity, gender and region, so that hill high castes have held advantages in politics and the economy.
• Changes such as education, migration for foreign employment, remittances and urbanisation have increased social mobility, though inequality remains.

Social research is the systematic, scientific study of social life and social problems, using methods to collect and analyse data in order to describe, explain and predict social phenomena.

Four trends applicable in sociological research.

1. Quantitative research: Uses numerical data, surveys and statistical analysis to test hypotheses and measure patterns, for example a survey of household income.
2. Qualitative research: Uses interviews, observation, case studies and ethnography to understand meanings and experiences in depth.
3. Mixed-methods research: Combines quantitative and qualitative methods to give a fuller picture.
4. Use of technology and big data: Online surveys, social media data and computer-assisted analysis are used. There is also a growing concern for ethics, such as consent and privacy, and for participatory and applied research.

Post-modernism is a perspective that questions the certainty and universal truths of modern thought. It arose in the late twentieth century and is associated with Foucault, Lyotard, Baudrillard and Derrida.

Basic assumptions.

1. Rejection of grand narratives: There is no single theory, such as progress or Marxism, that explains all society (Lyotard). Example: development is not the same for every country.
2. Truth and knowledge are relative: Knowledge depends on context and is tied to power (Foucault). Example: whose history is taught in schools.
3. Importance of language and discourse: Reality is constructed through language and texts.
4. Diversity and fragmentation: Identity is plural and changing, not fixed. Example: a person may have many identities of gender, ethnicity and profession.
5. Hyperreality and consumer culture: Images and signs (media, advertising, brands) shape reality more than real things (Baudrillard). Example: buying a brand for status.
6. Scepticism toward science and reason: Science is one form of knowledge, not the only truth.

A social institution is an established, organised set of norms, roles and relationships through which a society meets its basic needs and regulates behaviour. Family, education, religion, economy and polity are the main social institutions.

Implications of political institutions in corporations:

• Legal framework: the state, parliament and ministries make company, labour, tax and foreign-investment laws that every corporation must follow.
• Regulation and licensing: bodies such as the Office of the Company Registrar, SEBON and Nepal Rastra Bank control registration, listing and operation.
• Political stability: stable government and consistent policy encourage investment; instability, strikes and frequent policy change raise business risk.
• Economic policy: budgets, subsidies, tariffs and monetary policy directly affect costs, prices and profits.
• Political connections: corporations lobby for favourable policy, and political patronage can distort competition and encourage corruption.
• Public contracts and CSR: government procurement and mandatory CSR/tax provisions shape corporate strategy and social responsibility.

(a) Family as a fundamental social institution

A social institution is a stable pattern of norms and roles that meets a basic social need. The family is the most basic one because it:

• Reproduces and replaces society through childbirth and care.
• Socialises children by teaching language, values, norms and culture.
• Provides economic support, with members sharing income, property and labour.
• Gives emotional security and a sense of identity and status.
• Regulates sexual behaviour and transfers property and inheritance.

Forms differ across societies: nuclear, joint or extended, matrilineal or patrilineal, monogamous or polygamous. The passage shows the family also acts as an economic unit, since family members own, control and inherit the firm.

(b) Family firm from the functional perspective

Functionalism views society as a system of interdependent parts, each performing functions that keep the whole stable. In this view the family firm:

• Uses family trust and kinship ties, giving lower operating costs and strong social capital.
• Provides continuity and inheritance, because ownership passes to the next generation.
• Supports quick decisions and flexibility in responding to market change.
• Builds reputation and branding through long-standing values, and preserves traditional practices.
• Contributes to economic stability, since a large share of firms worldwide are family owned (for example 80% in Germany and the Netherlands).
• Keeps the family integrated, with members employed and sharing a common goal.

(c) Family firm from the conflict perspective

Conflict theory sees society as a struggle over scarce resources and power between unequal groups. Applied to the family firm:

• Power and ownership are concentrated in the founding family, so non-family employees are disadvantaged in promotion and pay.
• Nepotism gives jobs to relatives regardless of merit, creating inequality and resentment.
• Inheritance disputes among siblings and between generations, as well as gender inequality over who inherits, cause conflict.
• Owners may exploit workers and use socio-political networks to protect their own interests.
• Professional managers and family members compete over control of decisions.

(d) Challenges and suggestions

Separating family matters from business matters and arranging regular family councils would help the firm keep its strengths while reducing its drawbacks.

Nepal was known as Tapovan in the Treta Yuga, as mentioned in the Hindu Vedas and Puranas.

Four contributions of the Kirant rulers:

1. They ruled the Kathmandu Valley and eastern Nepal for centuries and established an early organised political system.
2. They spread Kirat culture and religion based on nature and ancestor worship (Mundhum).
3. They developed agriculture and trade and built settlements such as the early town of Patan and the Kirat-era Pashupati area.
4. Emperor Ashoka's contact and the spread of Buddhism in Nepal are linked with the Kirat period; they also contributed to the stability and cultural identity of the valley.

Main teachings of Buddhism:

1. Four Noble Truths: life involves suffering (dukkha); suffering has a cause (desire); suffering can end (nirvana); and there is a path to end it.
2. Noble Eightfold Path: right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness and concentration.
3. Middle Path: avoid both extreme indulgence and extreme self-denial.
4. Non-violence (ahimsa), compassion and equality of all beings, with rejection of the caste system.
5. Karma and rebirth: one's actions decide future life, and liberation comes from ending craving.

Patan Durbar Square was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979 AD (2036 BS), as part of the Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Site.

Cultural heritage is the legacy of physical objects and intangible attributes that a society inherits from the past, preserves in the present and passes to future generations. It includes monuments, temples, art, artefacts and buildings (tangible heritage) as well as language, customs, festivals, music and traditions (intangible heritage).

Four implications of NGOs in economy and business:

1. They create employment and income opportunities, especially in rural areas.
2. They provide skill training, microfinance and entrepreneurship support, helping people start small businesses.
3. They bring foreign aid and investment into development projects and community services.
4. They promote social responsibility, awareness and good governance, and fill gaps in health, education and infrastructure where the market or state is weak.

The seven tributaries of the Sapta Gandaki river system are:

1. Daraudi
2. Seti
3. Madi
4. Marsyangdi
5. Kali Gandaki
6. Budhi Gandaki
7. Trishuli

They join to form the Narayani (Gandak) river, which flows to India.

Natural resources are materials and features of the environment that occur naturally and are useful to humans, such as land, water, forests, minerals, soil, air, sunlight and wildlife. They may be renewable (forests, water) or non-renewable (coal, minerals).

Four roles of Nepal in the United Nations:

1. Nepal became a UN member in 1955 and supports its charter, world peace and non-alignment.
2. It is among the leading contributors of peacekeeping forces in UN missions around the world.
3. It has served on the Security Council (1969-70 and 1988-89) and other UN bodies.
4. It has taken part in UN work on human rights, climate change, development and least-developed-country issues, and hosts UN agencies and programmes.

The Sugauli Treaty was signed on 2 December 1815 and ratified on 4 March 1816 between Nepal and the East India Company, ending the Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16).

Main conditions:

1. Nepal gave up its claim to the territory west of the Kali river and the hill areas of Kumaun, Garhwal and Sikkim, including the land east of the Mechi.
2. Nepal also lost much of the Terai between the Mechi and Rapti, though part of it was later returned (1816 and 1860) in the Rapti-Kosi region and Naya Muluk.
3. Nepal agreed to accept a British resident in Kathmandu.
4. Nepal agreed not to employ any European or American in its service without British consent.
5. Nepal accepted British mediation in any dispute with Sikkim.
6. The British guaranteed the independence of Nepal in the remaining territory.

Evaluation: the treaty cut Nepal's size by about one-third, ended its expansion, and reduced its trade and economic strength. However, it preserved Nepal's independence, set its boundaries and led to the lasting relationship with Britain, and Gurkha recruitment began soon after.

Demography is the study of population size, growth, structure, distribution and change. Its knowledge helps in:

• Business: population size and age structure show market demand, so firms can decide products, pricing and location (baby products for young families, healthcare for ageing populations).
• Market segmentation: data on age, sex, income, education and urban or rural location help targeting and advertising.
• Economy: population growth shapes labour supply, savings, consumption, unemployment and the need for jobs, schools and health services; the demographic dividend can be used by investing in youth skills.
• Work culture: a young, diverse workforce requires training, flexible policies, gender inclusion and management of migration and remittance trends; an ageing workforce needs retirement and succession planning.
• Planning: government and firms use census data for infrastructure, human resource planning and forecasting.

Tourism is important to Nepal but faces many challenges:

1. Political instability and frequent strikes (bandhs) discourage visitors.
2. Weak infrastructure: poor roads, limited airports and power or water shortages. Tribhuvan airport capacity is limited and Lukla and other airports are risky.
3. Safety and security concerns, including air accidents and natural disasters such as the 2015 earthquake.
4. Seasonality: dependence on spring and autumn, with low income in other months.
5. Limited promotion and product diversification; over-dependence on trekking and a few destinations and source markets.
6. Shortage of trained human resources and poor service quality.
7. Environmental problems: pollution, waste on trekking trails and pressure on heritage sites.
8. Competition from other destinations and the effect of global events such as COVID-19.
9. High costs and weak air connectivity, with few direct international flights.

Overcoming them requires stable policy, better infrastructure, branding, training and sustainable tourism practices.

The secondary sector covers manufacturing, construction, mining and utilities (electricity, gas, water), turning raw materials into finished goods.

Present status:

• The sector remains small, contributing roughly 13-15% of GDP (manufacturing alone about 5-6%), compared with agriculture (about a quarter) and services (over half).
• Most industries are small, based on agro-products, such as food, beverages, tobacco, textiles, carpets, garments, cement, steel, plastics and bricks.
• Growth is held back by power shortages in the past, labour disputes, weak infrastructure, limited capital and technology, import dependence and a small domestic market, though energy supply has improved recently.
• Construction and hydropower have grown, helped by remittance-driven demand.
• Industrial estates and special economic zones have been developed but are not fully used.

Contributions to the national economy:

1. Adds to GDP and national income.
2. Creates employment, including for skilled and semi-skilled workers.
3. Adds value to raw materials and agricultural products.
4. Earns revenue for the government through taxes and duties and produces exports (carpets, garments, pashmina).
5. Reduces import dependence, builds infrastructure and links agriculture with services.

Bio-diversity is the variety of all living things on Earth, including the variety of species, the genetic differences within species and the ecosystems in which they live. Nepal is rich in it because of its range of altitude and climate, from Terai to the Himalayas.

Causes of threat to bio-diversity:

1. Habitat loss and fragmentation from deforestation, farmland expansion and urbanisation.
2. Over-exploitation: over-hunting, poaching and illegal wildlife trade (rhinos, tigers, pangolins), and overharvesting of herbs.
3. Pollution of air, water and soil, and overuse of chemicals and pesticides.
4. Climate change, which shifts habitats, melts glaciers and alters species ranges.
5. Invasive alien species such as Mikania that displace native plants.
6. Forest fires, overgrazing, encroachment and infrastructure development.
7. Human-wildlife conflict, population pressure and weak enforcement or low awareness.

Local self-government (municipalities and rural municipalities) plays an important part in local economy and business:

1. Local planning and development: prepares annual plans and budgets and builds roads, markets, irrigation and electricity that support business.
2. Revenue mobilisation: collects local taxes, business registration, license and service fees, and uses them for local development.
3. Business registration and regulation: registers and regulates cottage and small industries, shops, and trade.
4. Employment and entrepreneurship: runs skill training, microenterprise and agricultural support programmes.
5. Service delivery in education, health, water and sanitation, which improves the quality of the workforce.
6. Promotion of local products, tourism and local resources, and of cooperatives.
7. Participation and accountability: brings decisions closer to citizens and helps reduce regional imbalance, as the constitution gives local levels economic powers.

(a) Roles of Tharu villages in the existence of hotels, shops and restaurants

• The two villages (Sauraha and Odra) form the cultural core of the tourist destination; their traditional life, dress, dance and food are part of the attraction.
• They provide land and location next to Chitwan National Park for the 15 big hotels and 20 mobile shops and restaurants.
• They supply cheap labour for the lodges, such as farm work, repairs, cooking and cleaning.
• They provide local food, farm products and fish and home-stay or cultural programmes.
• Their hospitality and welcome give tourists a sense of authentic local culture, which increases demand for stays.

(b) Chitwan National Park and tourism business in Sauraha

• The park (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) with its rhinos, tigers, elephants, crocodiles and birds is the main attraction, drawing tourists to Sauraha.
• Tourists use hotels, restaurants, guides, jeep safari, elephant and canoe services, giving business to the village.
• Business in turn supports the park through entry fees, buffer-zone revenue sharing and conservation awareness.
• The relationship is mutual: the park creates demand, and tourism income and local jobs encourage people to protect it. Poor management on either side could harm both.

(c) Socio-economic status of Tharu people

• Economic: most are bunivurus (daily labourers) in fields and hotels with low and uncertain income; the hotel and restaurant business is owned by outsiders.
• Education and skills: low education, lack of foreign-language and entrepreneurship skills limit their chances.
• Social: they have close family and community life, spend on socialising, drinking and feasts, and carry out group activities like fishing and firewood collection; their status stays low compared with outside owners.
• Cultural: the visible contrast between tourists' modern life and their traditional life shows inequality.

(d) Ways to uplift their economic status

1. Give education, vocational training, hospitality and foreign-language courses.
2. Provide microfinance and cooperative support so they can run their own homestays, shops, and guide services.
3. Promote community-based tourism and a fair share of park buffer-zone revenue.
4. Create preferential local hiring in hotels and fair wages.
5. Encourage savings and reduce spending on social drinking through awareness.
6. Promote Tharu handicrafts, cultural shows and agro-products, and make land and ownership rights secure.

Amshuverma, a Thakuri who first served as a Samanta (feudal lord) under King Shivadeva I, is known as the de facto king of the Lichchhavi period. He held real power and took the title Maharaja, while the Lichchhavi kings were nominal rulers.

Two major contributions of Ram Shah (Gorkha king, 1606-1633):

1. He introduced a uniform system of weights and measures in the kingdom, which helped trade.
2. He established a fair system of justice, and was known as a just ruler (he is also credited with improving the administration and economy).

According to the 2011 census, Nepal's population was 26,494,504 (about 26.5 million), of whom 12,849,041 were male and 13,645,463 were female. The sex ratio was 94.2 males per 100 females.

Demography is the scientific, mainly statistical study of the size, structure, distribution and changes (births, deaths, migration) of a population. Population studies is broader: it also covers the causes and social, economic, political and environmental consequences and policies related to population. So demography is narrower and quantitative, while population studies is wider and multidisciplinary.

The major sects of Buddhism are:

1. Theravada (Hinayana): the earliest school, which follows the original teaching.
2. Mahayana: emphasises compassion and the Bodhisattva ideal.
3. Vajrayana (Tantrayana): the tantric school, prominent in Tibet, Nepal and the Himalaya.

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite index published by UNDP that measures a country's average achievement in health (life expectancy), education (years of schooling) and standard of living (income per capita).

Four problems of the tourism sector in Nepal:

1. Weak infrastructure: poor roads, airports and facilities, and limited tourist services.
2. Political instability and security concerns.
3. Heavy dependence on a few markets and limited product diversification and promotion.
4. Environmental degradation, pollution and lack of trained human resources; natural disasters such as the 2015 earthquake also hurt tourism.

Elements of democracy:

• Popular sovereignty (power belongs to the people)
• Free and fair periodic elections
• Rule of law and an independent judiciary
• Fundamental rights and civil liberties
• Multi-party competition and political participation
• Majority rule with minority rights
• Freedom of the press and speech
• Accountability and transparency of government

Nepal's metropolitan cities are Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Pokhara, Bharatpur, Biratnagar and Birgunj.

Natural resources are materials and elements that exist in nature and are useful to humans, such as water, forests, land, minerals and sunlight.

Types:

• Renewable resources: can be replaced naturally, e.g. forests, water, solar energy.
• Non-renewable resources: exhausted with use, e.g. coal, minerals, petroleum.

(They are also classified as biotic and abiotic.)

Demography: Demography is the scientific study of the size, composition, distribution and changes of a population through fertility, mortality and migration.

Demographic composition of Nepal (Census 2011)

Nepal's total population was 26,494,504, with 125 caste/ethnic groups and 123 languages.

Caste/ethnic composition (approximate shares)

• Chhetri: 16.6% (the largest group)
• Brahmin (Hill): 12.2%
• Magar: 7.1%
• Tharu: 6.6%
• Tamang: 5.8%
• Newar: 5.0%
• Kami: 4.8%
• Muslim: 4.4%
• Yadav: 4.0%
• Rai: 2.3%, Gurung: 2.0%, Damai/Dholi: 1.8%, Limbu: 1.5%, and many smaller groups.

Religious composition

• Hinduism: 81.3%
• Buddhism: 9.0%
• Islam: 4.4%
• Kirat: 3.1%
• Christianity: 1.4%
• Prakriti, Bon, Jain, Bahai and Sikh: together under 1%.

The data show that Nepal is a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual and multi-religious country, with Hindus forming the overwhelming majority, and with a large share of indigenous nationalities (Janajati) and Dalits.

Jayasthiti Malla (1382-1395) ruled the Kathmandu Valley and is regarded as the great reformer king of the Malla period because he restored order and reorganised society after a time of political instability and Muslim invasions (the Shamsuddin raid of 1349).

His reforms:

• Social reform: he arranged the Newar society into 64 (some sources say 4 varnas and 64 castes) occupational castes based on the Hindu caste system, giving each its duties, which created social discipline.
• Legal reform: he codified laws and customs, set rules for crimes and punishments, and made the justice system more orderly.
• Economic reform: he regulated land measurement and land distribution and standardised weights and measures, helping agriculture and trade.
• Administrative reform: he organised the administration and revenue collection and strengthened the state.
• Religious and cultural work: he promoted Hindu religious practice and arts, and he was a patron of learning, so the period saw cultural growth.
• Political unification: he brought the valley under a single rule and restored stability.

Because of these wide reforms in society, law, economy and administration, Jayasthiti Malla is justified as the reformer king of the Malla period.

Agriculture: Agriculture is the science and practice of cultivating land and raising crops and livestock to produce food, fibre and other products for human use.

Contribution of agriculture to Nepal

• It contributes about a quarter of GDP (around 24-25%).
• It employs about 60% of the people, so it is the main source of livelihood.
• It provides food security and raw materials for agro-based industries (jute, sugar, tea, tobacco).
• It earns foreign exchange through exports such as cardamom, tea, ginger and lentils.
• It supports rural development and reduces poverty.
• It supplies the base for trade, transport and other sectors.

Challenges

• Subsistence farming with small and fragmented landholdings.
• Dependence on monsoon rain and poor irrigation.
• Low use of modern technology, improved seeds and fertilisers (and shortage at the time needed).
• Poor roads, markets, storage and credit.
• Climate change, floods, landslides and land degradation.
• Youth migration and ageing of the farming labour force.
• Competition from cheap imports and low prices for farmers.

Biodiversity: Bio-diversity (biological diversity) is the variety of all life forms on earth, including plants, animals and microorganisms, together with the genes they contain and the ecosystems they form.

Types of biodiversity

1. Genetic diversity: variation of genes within a species, e.g. different varieties of rice.
2. Species diversity: variety of species in a region, e.g. the many mammals and birds of Nepal.
3. Ecosystem diversity: variety of habitats and ecosystems such as forests, wetlands, grasslands and mountains.

Importance

• Provides food, medicine, timber, fibre and other resources.
• Maintains ecological balance, soil fertility, water and climate regulation.
• Supports agriculture through pollination and genetic material.
• Attracts tourists and brings income (national parks and wildlife).
• Has cultural, aesthetic, scientific and educational value.
• Helps protect the earth for future generations. For Nepal, with its great range of altitude, it is very rich in biodiversity.

Constitution: A constitution is the fundamental law of a country that sets out the structure of the state, powers and duties of its organs, and the rights and duties of citizens. It is the supreme law against which all other laws are judged.

Major features of the Constitution of Nepal 2015

• Federal democratic republic: Nepal is a secular, inclusive, federal democratic republican state with three tiers of government (federal, 7 provincial, 753 local).
• Sovereignty lies in the people.
• Fundamental rights and duties: it guarantees 31 fundamental rights, including rights to equality, freedom, social justice, right to food, housing and education, and sets duties.
• Parliamentary system: a bicameral federal parliament, with a House of Representatives (275 members) and a National Assembly (59 members).
• Mixed electoral system: first-past-the-post and proportional representation.
• Written, lengthy and rigid: it consists of 35 parts, 308 articles and 9 schedules, and is hard to amend.
• Independent judiciary: a Supreme Court, high courts and district courts.
• Inclusion and proportional representation for women, Dalits, indigenous peoples, Madhesis and others.
• Directive principles and policies of the state, and independent constitutional commissions.
• Secularism, multi-party competition and a ceremonial President as head of state.

Democracy: Democracy is a system of government in which power belongs to the people, who exercise it directly or through elected representatives. In Lincoln's words, it is government "of the people, by the people, for the people".

Merits

• Government is accountable to the people.
• Protects rights, freedom and equality before the law.
• Allows peaceful change of government through elections.
• Encourages public participation and debate, and the free flow of ideas.
• Promotes political education and civic responsibility.
• Tends to give stability and legitimacy, and reduces violent conflict.
• Protects minorities and permits inclusion.

Demerits

• Slow decision making and costly (elections, debate).
• Rule by the majority may be unwise, as people may lack knowledge ("rule of the incompetent"), and may ignore minorities.
• Political parties may promote self-interest, corruption and populism.
• Political instability from frequent changes of government.
• Money and muscle power can influence elections.
• Low voter turnout and apathy.
• Can lead to unqualified leaders and conflict between groups.

(a) Family conflict in the palace after the 1990 constitution

The 1990 constitution made Nepal a constitutional monarchy and greatly reduced the king's powers. King Birendra accepted the change and behaved as a constitutional monarch and a stabilising force. But a faction in the palace led by his brother Gyanendra and the queen mother Ratna Rajya could not accept the loss of royal power. They opposed the new system and are believed to have worked to weaken the political parties so that the palace could regain its lost authority. This divided the royal family into those who accepted the constitution and those who wanted to revive absolute power, producing mistrust, rivalry and conspiracies. Personal disputes over succession and marriage (the crown prince's relationship) added to the tension.

(b) The 1 June 2001 royal massacre as the turning point

On 1 June 2001 King Birendra and nearly all his family were killed. This ended the line of a popular, constitutional king and removed the respected monarch. Crown Prince Dipendra was blamed by the commission, but people did not believe the report and suspected Gyanendra, which seriously damaged the image of the monarchy. Gyanendra became king, who was unpopular and distrusted. He later dismissed the government (2002), took direct power (2005) and ended democracy, which provoked the 2006 People's Movement (Jana Andolan II). The monarchy was then curtailed, and in 2008 the Constituent Assembly abolished it. Thus the massacre set off the loss of public trust, which led to the fall of the dynasty.

(c) Why people do not accept Gyanendra as a true king

• He was suspected of involvement in the massacre, since he was the only surviving brother and became the main beneficiary.
• He was seen as notorious for businesses, smuggling and corruption.
• His son Paras, the crown prince, was infamous for violent behaviour and killings.
• He opposed the democratic system and wanted power for the palace.
• Religious people believed the myth of Gorakhanath's blessing that the Shah dynasty would last ten generations, and that it ended with Birendra, so he was not a true heir.
• There was no natural line of succession left after the massacre, and the people had no trust or respect for him.

(d) Major causes of the end of the Shah dynasty (my opinion)

1. The royal massacre of 2001 destroyed the popular king and trust in the monarchy.
2. Gyanendra's unpopularity and his direct rule of 2005 against democracy.
3. The Maoist insurgency (1996-2006), which challenged the monarchy and the old state structure.
4. The 2006 People's Movement and the alliance of the parties and the Maoists.
5. Public demand for republic, inclusion and an end to the feudal rule.
6. Palace conspiracies, corruption and the misuse of the army and power.
7. International pressure and the failure of the monarchy to adjust to the democratic age.