Society and Technology

Definition. Socialization is the lifelong process by which an individual learns the language, values, norms, skills and roles of his or her society and develops a personality and self. Through it a biological human becomes a social being. Johnson described it as learning that enables the learner to perform social roles.

Stages of socialization

1. Primary socialization (infancy and early childhood). Takes place mainly in the family. The child learns language, basic habits, emotional bonds and elementary norms. It is the most influential stage.
2. Secondary socialization (childhood and adolescence). The child enters school and peer groups and learns formal rules, discipline, knowledge and roles outside the family.
3. Anticipatory socialization. Learning the values and behaviour of a group one expects to join, for example a student preparing for a profession or marriage.
4. Adult socialization. Learning new roles at work, in marriage and in parenthood, adjusting to new institutions.
5. Resocialization. Giving up old patterns and learning new ones, as in a prison, rehabilitation centre, army camp or after migration abroad.

(Freud's psychological stages, Cooley's looking-glass self and Mead's play and game stages describe how the self develops within these stages.)

Agents of socialization

• Family. The first and strongest agent; it gives language, values, religion and identity.
• Peer group. Friends of similar age teach cooperation, equality and the norms of youth culture, mostly outside adult control.
• School. Teaches formal knowledge, punctuality, discipline and national values.
• Mass media. Television, internet, social media and newspapers shape opinions, tastes and ideas about the wider world.
• Religion. Gives moral values and rituals.
• Workplace, state and community. Teach occupational skills, laws and civic duties.

Together these agents shape personality and fit the individual into society.

Sociology is called a general science because it studies society and social behaviour as a whole, in contrast to special social sciences that study one aspect of life.

Meaning. A special science such as economics (production, exchange, wealth) or political science (state and power) examines only one type of social activity. Sociology studies the general features common to all social relationships: social interaction, groups, institutions, norms, social control and change.

Why it is general

• Wide subject matter. Sociology covers family, religion, education, economy, polity and culture together and studies how they are interrelated. Ginsberg described sociology as the study of social relationships taken as a whole.
• Basic concepts for other sciences. Concepts such as role, status, norm, group and institution are used by economics, politics and history, so sociology supplies a general framework for them.
• Study of the general laws of society. It looks for patterns that hold across societies, not for the particulars of one field.
• Interdisciplinary link. Findings of sociology help the special social sciences understand the social setting of their own subject.

Examples. Economics explains the market price of rice, while sociology asks how caste, family and community ties shape who farms, who owns land and how food is shared. Political science studies voting; sociology studies how class, ethnicity, religion and gender influence voting behaviour.

Hence sociology is a general social science that gives a broad view of society, while others give a specialised view.

The family is the first and most basic group a person belongs to, so it is called a primary social institution. An institution is an organised, stable set of norms that meets a basic social need; the family meets the need for reproduction, care and early training.

Why it is primary

• Universal and oldest. Family exists in every society, in some form (nuclear, joint or extended), and historically came before the state, school or market.
• First agent of socialization. A child learns language, values, manners and religion at home. A Nepali child learns respect for elders, festivals such as Dashain and Tihar, and the mother tongue in the family.
• Primary group relations. It is marked by face-to-face, intimate and lasting relationships, as Cooley described primary groups.
• Satisfies basic needs. It provides regulated sexual relations, procreation, food, shelter, protection and emotional security.
• Transmits culture. Customs, property, status and occupation pass through the family (for example, a family's traditional craft or farm passes to the next generation).
• Base of other institutions. Education, economy and religion all rely on the family; a school depends on children whom the family has prepared and sent.
• Social control. The family disciplines behaviour through approval and sanction, long before law does.

Example. In a joint family in rural Nepal, grandparents teach stories and rituals, parents provide care and income, and the children learn their roles in society. In this way the family builds the personality of the individual and keeps society running.

Because the family comes first in a person's life and shapes all later social experience, it is rightly called a primary social institution.

Technological society. A technological society is one in which technology, meaning scientific knowledge applied to production, communication and daily life, is the main force shaping the economy, social organisation, values and the way people live. Machines, computers, the internet and mobile phones influence work, education, family, politics and culture. Efficiency, rationality and speed become dominant values.

Features in third world (developing) societies like Nepal

1. Dual structure. Modern technology (mobile phones, internet, digital payment, solar power) exists beside traditional agriculture and handicrafts; technology is unevenly spread between urban and rural areas, giving a digital divide.
2. Imported technology. Most machinery, software and devices come from developed countries, creating dependence and high costs. Local research and production are weak.
3. Rapid but unplanned change. Technology enters faster than institutions and values adjust, causing cultural lag, for example social media use without digital literacy.
4. Economic effects. Some new jobs (IT, outsourcing, remittance transfer apps), but also unemployment in traditional crafts and agriculture; migration of labour abroad.
5. Social and cultural change. Weakening of joint families, changed gender roles, westernised tastes, and reduced face-to-face contact, with youth adopting global culture.
6. Education and information access. Online classes, e-governance and wider information access, although limited by electricity, cost and skills.
7. Problems. Environmental pollution, cyber crime, privacy loss, inequality between those who can and cannot use technology.

In sum, technological society in the third world is marked by partial, borrowed and uneven technological development, creating both opportunities and social problems.

Research methods are the systematic procedures used to collect and analyse information about social life. The key methods in social science are:

1. Survey method. Information is collected from a sample of people using questionnaires or interviews, then analysed statistically. It is suitable for large populations, for example a survey of students' internet use.
2. Case study method. An in-depth study of one individual, family, group, community or institution, giving detailed qualitative understanding.
3. Observation method. The researcher watches behaviour directly. It may be participant (researcher joins the group) or non-participant, and structured or unstructured.
4. Experimental method. Variables are manipulated under controlled conditions to test cause and effect; used in social psychology, though less often in sociology.
5. Historical (documentary) method. Past records, diaries, laws and archives are studied to understand social change.
6. Comparative method. Two or more societies, groups or periods are compared to find similarities, differences and general patterns (used by Durkheim and Weber).
7. Statistical method. Numerical data such as census figures are summarised and tested to find relationships.
8. Ethnographic and focus group methods. Long field stay and group discussions to understand culture and views of people.

Methods are also classed as quantitative (numbers, surveys, statistics) and qualitative (meanings, case study, observation); researchers often combine them (mixed methods) to improve validity.

Kinship. Kinship is the system of social relationships based on blood (descent) or marriage. Kin are the persons who are related to each other through these ties, and the terms and rules that govern their rights and duties form the kinship system. It is a basic structure in all societies, and it decides inheritance, residence, marriage and support.

Types of kinship

1. Consanguineal kinship (blood relations). Relations based on common descent, for example parent and child, brothers and sisters, grandparents, uncle and nephew.
2. Affinal kinship (relations by marriage). Relations created through marriage, for example husband and wife, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, brother-in-law, mother-in-law.

By degree of closeness, kin are further grouped as:

• Primary kin: direct relatives within the nuclear family: father, mother, son, daughter, brother, sister, husband, wife.
• Secondary kin: primary kin of primary kin, such as father's father, mother's brother, sister's husband.
• Tertiary kin: kin of secondary kin, such as father's brother's wife, mother's brother's son.

By descent rule, kinship systems are patrilineal (traced through the father; common in Nepal's Hindu communities), matrilineal (through the mother) and bilateral (through both).

Example. In a Nepali family, a man's brother-in-law (affinal) and his paternal uncle (consanguineal) both are kin but with different rights and obligations.

Social and cultural change is the alteration in social relationships, institutions, values and ways of life over time. Three major factors are discussed below.

1. Technological factor. New inventions change the way people work and live. The printing press, electricity, motor vehicles, the internet and mobile phones have altered communication, production and family life. For example, mobile phones and social media have changed how Nepali families stay in touch with relatives abroad. Ogburn argued that technology is a key driver of change and that non-material culture adjusts later (cultural lag).

2. Economic factor. Changes in the mode of production and occupations change classes and relationships. Industrialisation, urbanisation and migration for foreign employment have changed Nepali family structure, income and status; remittance has raised living standards and altered rural patterns. Marx stressed the economic base as the root of social change.

3. Demographic factor. Changes in population size, birth and death rates, age structure and migration affect society. Falling death rates and growing urban population create demand for housing and services, while the migration of youth leaves villages with elderly people and changes the family and labour structure.

(Other factors include education, ideology, politics, the physical environment and cultural contact.) These factors are interrelated and together bring about continuous social and cultural change.

National integration. National integration is the process of uniting the different caste, ethnic, linguistic, religious, regional and cultural groups of a country into one nation with a common sense of belonging, loyalty and identity, while still respecting their diversity. It means "unity in diversity". In Nepal, with over 100 caste/ethnic groups and about 120 languages, it is especially important for peace, stability and development.

Major dimensions

1. Political integration. Common constitution, equal citizenship, inclusive representation, a fair federal system and loyalty to the state. Participation of all groups in decision making reduces conflict.
2. Economic integration. Balanced regional development, equal access to resources and opportunities, reducing inequality between regions, classes and groups through roads, markets and employment.
3. Social integration. Harmony and cooperation among castes, ethnic groups and genders; removal of discrimination, untouchability and exclusion; mutual respect and intermarriage.
4. Cultural integration. Respect for different languages, religions, festivals and customs, together with shared national symbols (flag, anthem) and common values. Cultural assimilation is not forced; plural culture is recognised.
5. Emotional (psychological) integration. A feeling of one nation, patriotism and shared identity, built by education, history and national pride.
6. Territorial or geographical integration. Linking hills, mountains and Tarai through transport and communication so the whole territory is connected to the centre.
7. Educational and communication integration. Common curriculum with local content, and media that connect all communities.

Conclusion. These dimensions work together. National integration is achieved when all citizens feel equal and included, and it is the basis for a strong, peaceful and developed nation.

Accountability means being answerable for the results of one's professional actions. Computer professionals design the software, data systems and networks on which modern society depends, so errors or misuse can harm many people. Their accountability towards society includes the following.

1. Public safety and quality. They must build reliable, tested systems, especially safety-critical ones (banking, hospital, aviation, power). The Therac-25 radiation machine, whose software faults killed patients, shows the cost of negligence.
2. Privacy and data protection. They must protect personal data from unauthorised access and use it only for stated purposes. A leak of citizens' or customers' data from a poorly secured system harms people directly.
3. Security. Using safe coding, encryption and updates to prevent hacking, fraud and malware, and not creating or spreading malicious software.
4. Honesty and integrity. Giving true estimates of cost, time and capability, admitting mistakes and not hiding defects, for example reporting a known vulnerability rather than concealing it.
5. Respect for intellectual property. Avoiding piracy, plagiarism and licence violations; crediting open-source authors.
6. Fairness and non-discrimination. Avoiding bias in algorithms (loan approval, hiring) and making systems accessible to the disabled and to local-language users.
7. Social and environmental responsibility. Considering effects on jobs, children (online abuse, addiction) and e-waste, and using technology for public benefit such as e-governance and education.
8. Professional codes. Following codes of ethics such as the ACM/IEEE codes and national laws like Nepal's Electronic Transactions Act, and accepting legal responsibility for violations.
9. Whistle-blowing and continuing learning. Reporting unethical or dangerous practices and keeping skills current.

Conclusion. Because technology affects everyone, computer professionals owe society safe, secure, honest and fair systems, and must accept responsibility when harm results.

A research proposal is a plan of the study submitted before research begins. Its basic steps are as follows.

1. Selecting and defining the problem. Choose a researchable topic of interest and social relevance and state it clearly, for example "Impact of social media on the study habits of college students in Kathmandu."
2. Review of literature. Study earlier books, articles and reports to find what is known, identify gaps and avoid duplication; this builds the theoretical background.
3. Statement of the problem and rationale. Explain the issue and why the study is needed and significant.
4. Objectives. State general and specific objectives that the study will achieve.
5. Research questions and hypotheses. Write the questions to be answered or testable statements about relationships between variables.
6. Conceptual framework. Define key concepts and variables and show how they are related.
7. Research design and methodology. Describe the type of study (descriptive, explanatory, exploratory), universe, sampling method and sample size, sources of data, and tools such as questionnaire or interview.
8. Data analysis plan. Explain how data will be processed and analysed (tables, statistics, thematic analysis).
9. Limitations and ethical considerations. State scope limits and ethics: informed consent, confidentiality, no harm.
10. Work plan and budget. Give a timetable and cost estimate.
11. References and appendices. List all sources cited in standard style and attach the draft tools.

A clear proposal in this order gives direction to the research and persuades reviewers or funders of its value.

The Formalistic and Synthetic schools are two early views about the scope and nature of sociology.

Summary. The Formalistic school confines sociology to the pure forms of social relationships so that it has a distinct subject matter, whereas the Synthetic school regards sociology as a synthesis of all social sciences, studying society as a whole.

Introduction. Sociology studies society, social behaviour and change. Computer applications, such as software, social networks, e-commerce and e-governance, are used by people in social settings, so sociological understanding is relevant to computer professionals.

Points of relevance

1. Understanding users. Software is made for people with different cultures, languages, ages, classes and abilities. Sociology helps designers understand user needs, for example Nepali-language interfaces and accessibility.
2. Impact of technology on society. Sociology studies how computers change family, work, education and relationships, for example social media, online learning, automation and job change, and helps manage the effects.
3. Social networks and online communities. Concepts of groups, interaction, norms and identity explain behaviour on Facebook or TikTok, cyber bullying and online communities.
4. Ethics and responsibility. Awareness of privacy, cyber crime, digital divide and inequality guides ethical design.
5. Social research tools. Survey and sampling methods help in requirement gathering and usability testing.
6. Organisational behaviour. Knowledge of teamwork, communication and social roles helps in software projects and workplaces.
7. Social change and digital divide. It explains unequal access to computers between urban and rural, rich and poor, and supports inclusive ICT policy.

Conclusion. Sociology supplies the human and social perspective that makes computer applications useful, responsible and acceptable to society.

Modern technology, especially mobile phones, the internet, social media, appliances and transport, has changed the family and relationships among its members.

Positive influences

• Staying connected. Video calls (Viber, Messenger, WhatsApp) let migrant workers in the Gulf or abroad keep daily contact with spouse, children and parents, softening the effect of distance.
• Convenience and time. Household appliances reduce domestic work, giving time for education and paid work, especially for women.
• Changing gender roles. Technology-based jobs and online income raise women's economic role and shared decision making.
• Information and education. Online learning and information improve health and parenting knowledge.

Negative influences

• Reduced face-to-face interaction. Members spend time on phones and TV instead of talking at meals, weakening emotional bonds.
• Generation gap. Children adapt to technology faster than elders, causing conflict over values, use of screens and privacy.
• Weakening of joint family. Migration for employment and urban nuclear living, helped by remote communication, reduce shared living and elder care.
• Social media problems. Online addiction, cyber bullying, exposure to unsuitable content and online affairs strain marital relations.
• Changed courtship and marriage. Online meeting and virtual contact have increased individual choice and love marriages.

Conclusion. Technology both connects and divides families. Its effect depends on how members use it; balanced use can strengthen relationships.

Society. Society is a web of social relationships among people who share territory, culture and a sense of belonging. MacIver and Page defined it as a system of customs, authority, mutual aid, groupings and divisions, controls of behaviour and liberties. It is abstract, being the pattern of relationships, not merely a group of persons. Examples are Nepali society or Indian society.

Community. A community is a group of people living in a particular geographical area with a common way of life and a feeling of "we-ness", for example a village, a town or a Tharu settlement.

Differences

Example. A village in Dolakha is a community with its own locality and shared feeling, but the relationships among all villages, castes and institutions of Nepal as a whole form society. A community can exist within society, but society is wider and more abstract.

Marriage. Marriage is a socially approved and legally or religiously recognised union between persons, normally a man and a woman, which establishes rights and duties between them and gives legitimacy to their children. It is the basis of the family and exists in every society in some form.

Types of marriage

A. Based on number of spouses

1. Monogamy. Marriage of one man to one woman at a time. It is the most common form and the legal norm in Nepal.
2. Polygamy. Marriage involving more than one spouse. It has two forms:
   • Polygyny: one man with several wives (found in some tribal and traditional societies).
   • Polyandry: one woman with several husbands, for example among some Himalayan communities such as parts of Humla and Tibetan groups, often fraternal polyandry.
3. Group marriage. Several men are married to several women (rare).

B. Based on choice of partner

1. Endogamy. Marrying within one's own group, such as caste or tribe.
2. Exogamy. Marrying outside a specified group, such as gotra or clan; Hindu rules prohibit same-gotra marriage.

C. Based on mode of arrangement

1. Arranged marriage. Parents or elders select the partner (common in Nepal).
2. Love marriage. The partners choose each other.
3. Marriage by capture or elopement, found among some communities.

Other forms: Hypergamy (woman marries into higher status) and hypogamy; levirate (marrying deceased husband's brother) and sororate (marrying deceased wife's sister).

Forms of marriage vary with culture, religion, economy and law.

Social stratification. Social stratification is the division of society into ranked layers or strata, arranged hierarchically according to unequal access to wealth, power, prestige and opportunity. It is universal, social (not biological), persists over generations, and is supported by beliefs. Main forms are slavery, caste, estate and class.

Caste-based stratification in Nepal

Caste is a closed, hereditary and ranked system in which status is ascribed by birth. It was legalised in Nepal by the Muluki Ain of 1854, which divided the population into a hierarchy:

1. Tagadhari (wearers of the sacred thread): Brahmin, Chhetri, and some others at the top.
2. Matwali (liquor-drinking groups): Gurung, Magar, Tamang, Rai, Limbu and other ethnic groups.
3. Pani nachalne choi chito halnu naparne: water-unacceptable but touchable groups such as Newar occupational groups.
4. Pani nachalne choi chito halnu parne (Dalits, "untouchables"): groups such as Kami, Damai, Sarki, Badi, Chamar, who suffered the lowest status.

Features.

• Birth-based, hereditary membership and fixed hereditary occupations (blacksmith, tailor, cobbler).
• Endogamy, marriage within caste.
• Purity and pollution rules for food, water and touch, causing untouchability.
• Hierarchy of rights, resources and honour with Brahmin-Chhetri dominance in land, politics and administration.

Consequences. Dalits faced exclusion from temples, water sources and schools, poverty, and low representation.

Change. Untouchability and caste discrimination were abolished (1963 Civil Code and the 2007 and 2015 constitutions; Caste-Based Discrimination and Untouchability Act 2011). Education, urbanisation and reservation have weakened caste, but discrimination persists in rural areas, and caste identity still influences marriage and social life.

(a) Assimilation

Assimilation is the social process by which individuals or groups of different cultures gradually give up their own distinct culture and adopt the culture, attitudes and way of life of the dominant group, until they become fused into one. It is usually slow and unconscious, and takes place through prolonged contact, intermarriage, common language and education. It is a form of cultural merging, unlike accommodation where differences remain. Conditions that favour it include tolerance, similarity of cultures and equal opportunity; prejudice and isolation hinder it. Example: immigrants who adopt the language, dress and customs of the host country, or hill-migrant families adopting Tarai local culture. Assimilation promotes national unity but can erase minority identity.

(b) Focus Group Discussion (FGD) method

FGD is a qualitative method in which a small group of about 6 to 12 people with similar background is brought together to discuss a specific topic guided by a trained moderator, using a set of open questions. A note-taker records the discussion.

• Procedure: select a topic and participants, prepare a discussion guide, hold the session (60-90 minutes), record and analyse themes.
• Advantages: quick, inexpensive, gives group opinions and the reasons behind them, and interaction generates ideas.
• Limitations: dominant speakers may influence the group, sensitive topics are hard to discuss, and results cannot be generalised statistically.
• Example: a discussion with women in a village on barriers to schooling for girls.

National integration. National integration is the process of bringing the diverse caste, ethnic, linguistic, religious and regional groups of a country together into a united nation, with shared loyalty and a feeling of belonging to the same nation, while preserving their diversity ("unity in diversity"). It builds a strong, peaceful state and is essential in a plural country such as Nepal.

Major dimensions

1. Political dimension. A common constitution, equal citizenship, inclusive representation, power sharing through federalism and participation of all groups in governance. This builds trust in the state.
2. Economic dimension. Reducing regional and class inequality by spreading development, jobs, roads and markets to remote areas, so no group feels deprived.
3. Social dimension. Harmony between castes, ethnic groups and genders; elimination of discrimination, untouchability and exclusion; cooperation and intermarriage.
4. Cultural dimension. Respect for all languages, religions and festivals; common national symbols and heritage; mutual cultural exchange instead of forced assimilation.
5. Psychological (emotional) dimension. A shared national identity, patriotism and a feeling of "we" built through history, education and national events.
6. Territorial dimension. Connecting hills, mountains and plains with transport and communication so the whole country is linked.
7. Educational and communication dimension. National curriculum with local content, media in multiple languages, and ICT that connect people across regions.

Obstacles: caste and ethnic discrimination, regionalism, language conflicts, poverty and political instability.

Conclusion. National integration needs balanced action across all these dimensions so every citizen feels equal, respected and part of the nation.

Primary socialization is the first stage of socialization, taking place in infancy and early childhood mainly within the family. The statement means that the basic structure of an individual's personality is largely formed by what the person experiences in this stage.

Explanation

• Formative age. The child is highly impressionable and entirely dependent on parents and close caregivers, so what is learned goes deep. Freud said that the first years form the core of personality.
• Language and thought. The mother tongue and ways of thinking and expressing emotion are learned here, shaping how a person understands the world.
• Values and norms. Honesty, respect for elders, religion, gender roles and manners are first acquired in the family and tend to last throughout life. For example, a child brought up in a disciplined and affectionate home usually becomes responsible and confident.
• Self-concept. Cooley's looking-glass self and Mead's idea of taking the role of significant others (parents) show how the self arises from early interaction.
• Emotional security. Warm, stable care gives trust and healthy attachment, whereas neglect or abuse produces insecurity, aggression or withdrawal. Studies of isolated children such as Anna and Genie showed that without early socialization, language and social ability are badly impaired.
• Foundation for later learning. Secondary socialization (school, peers, workplace) builds on, and is limited by, what was learned earlier.

Qualification. Personality is not completely fixed in childhood. Later experiences, education, peers and resocialization can modify it, and heredity also contributes. Still, primary socialization provides the base of personality and has the strongest and most lasting effect, as the statement says.

Data collection tools and techniques are the means by which a researcher gathers information. Data are of two kinds: primary (collected firsthand) and secondary (from existing sources). The major tools and techniques are:

1. Questionnaire

A set of written questions, open-ended or closed, answered by respondents, either filled in by themselves or mailed or online. Merits: cheap, covers large samples, uniform. Limits: low response, not suitable for illiterate respondents.

2. Interview

Face-to-face or telephone conversation. It may be structured (fixed questions), unstructured (free flowing) or semi-structured. An interview schedule is the form used by the interviewer. Merits: in-depth, flexible, usable with illiterate people. Limits: costly, interviewer bias.

3. Observation

Direct watching and recording of behaviour. Participant observation (researcher joins) or non-participant; structured or unstructured. Provides real behaviour but is time-consuming and observer-biased.

4. Focus group discussion

Moderated discussion among 6-12 people on a topic, producing group views and reasons.

5. Case study

Detailed study of one unit such as a family or institution using several sources.

6. Survey

Collecting data from a sample by questionnaire or interview, used for large populations.

7. Life history, key informant interview and oral history

In-depth information from knowledgeable persons or about a person's life.

8. Documentary / secondary sources

Census, reports, records, diaries, newspapers and websites.

9. Experiment and scales

Controlled tests; attitude scales (Likert, Bogardus) and sociometry measure opinions and relationships.

Choice of tool depends on the research objective, nature and size of sample, literacy, time, money and the type of data needed. Often several tools are combined (triangulation) to improve reliability and validity.

Definition. Sociology is the scientific study of society, social relationships, social groups and institutions and human social behaviour. The word comes from Latin socius (companion) and Greek logos (study); it was coined by Auguste Comte in 1838.

Some definitions:

• Auguste Comte: the science of social phenomena.
• Emile Durkheim: the science of social institutions and their working.
• Giddings: the scientific study of society.
• MacIver and Page: the study of social relationships.
• Ogburn and Nimkoff: the scientific study of social life.

Nature of sociology

1. A science. It uses scientific methods, observing, classifying, testing and generalising from evidence, although its laws are less exact than in natural science.
2. A social science, not a natural science. It deals with human beings and their social behaviour.
3. Pure (theoretical) as well as applied. It builds knowledge and theories, but its findings are also used for policy and solving social problems.
4. Empirical and rational. Based on observation and experience as well as logical reasoning.
5. Abstract, not concrete. It studies patterns of relationship, not individual persons.
6. General, not special. It studies society as a whole, unlike economics or politics.
7. Categorical and objective. It states what is, not what ought to be; it avoids moral judgments or value bias.
8. Generalising, not particularising. It looks for general patterns across societies.

Thus sociology is an independent, empirical, abstract, general and value-free social science.

Sociology is the scientific study of society, social relationships and institutions. Anthropology is the study of humans, their origin, physical development, culture and ways of life, especially in simple or tribal societies. They are closely related social sciences.

Similarities

• Both study human beings in groups and social relationships and culture.
• Both use fieldwork, observation, interviews and case studies.
• Both study family, kinship, marriage, religion and social institutions.
• Both are holistic, and each borrows concepts and findings from the other; hence the combined field of social anthropology.
• Both aim at understanding social change and solving human problems.

Differences

Conclusion. They overlap considerably and complement each other, but differ in focus and method.

The family performs several functions that are essential both for individuals and for society. They can be grouped as follows.

Biological and basic functions

1. Regulation of sexual relations and procreation. The family gives socially approved sexual relations and provides for the reproduction and continuation of society.
2. Care, protection and maintenance. It supplies food, shelter, clothing and healthcare to children, the sick and the elderly.

Social functions

3. Socialization. The family is the first agent of socialization; it teaches language, manners, values and the roles a child needs.
4. Transmission of culture. Customs, religion, traditions and skills pass to the next generation.
5. Status ascription. A person's initial social position (caste, class, ethnicity, name) comes from the family.
6. Social control. It checks behaviour through informal discipline and approval.

Economic functions

7. Production and consumption. The family is a unit of production (farming, family business) and consumption, and it manages property and inheritance.
8. Division of labour between members by age and gender.

Psychological functions

9. Affection and emotional security. It gives love, companionship and mental support, essential for healthy personality.

Other functions

10. Educational, religious and recreational functions. Home teaching, family worship and festivals, and recreation.

Although some functions (education, health care, production) are now partly taken over by schools, hospitals and industries, the family's role in affection, socialization and basic support remains central.

Class stratification. A social class is a group of people sharing a similar economic position, occupation, income, education and lifestyle. Unlike caste, class is an open system based mostly on achievement, so mobility is possible. Marx viewed class by ownership of means of production, while Weber added status and power.

Class structure in Nepalese society

1. Upper class. Big landlords, industrialists, large traders and businesspeople, high-ranking politicians, senior bureaucrats and professionals. They hold wealth, power and influence over resources.
2. Middle class. Teachers, civil servants, engineers, doctors, bankers, small businesspeople and the growing urban salaried group. This class is expanding with education, urbanisation and remittance.
3. Lower class. Small and marginal farmers, agricultural labourers, factory and daily-wage workers, porters and the urban poor, who have low income, insecure work and little education.
4. Landless and bonded labourers (for example former Kamaiya and Haliya) at the very bottom.

Historical background. Under the Rana and Panchayat periods, class followed land ownership: birta and jagir holders were the elite, and tenants and peasants (raiti, kisan) the poor. Land reforms (1964) and the market economy gradually changed this.

Characteristics and issues

• Wide gap between rich and poor, and between urban and rural areas.
• Overlap of caste/ethnicity with class: Dalits and some indigenous groups are disproportionately in lower classes, while Brahmin-Chhetri and Newar groups are more represented in upper and middle strata.
• Foreign employment and remittance have raised many families' status, creating mobility and a new middle class.
• Education, occupation and politics are major routes to upward mobility.

Conclusion. Nepalese society is moving from a caste- and land-based hierarchy toward a class-based one, but inequalities continue and need policies on land, education and employment.

Social change is the alteration over time in the structure, institutions, relationships, values and patterns of behaviour of a society. It is not a change in one individual's habits but a change in the social order itself, for example the shift from joint to nuclear families, from agrarian to industrial economy, or from monarchy to republic in Nepal. Maclver and Page describe it as a change in social relationships; Giddens defines it as the alteration of the basic structures of a social group or society over time. Social change is universal, continuous, may be planned or unplanned, and may be gradual (evolution) or sudden (revolution).

Major factors of social change

1. Technological factors. New tools and techniques change production, communication and lifestyle. The printing press, electricity, mobile phones and the internet have altered work, education and social contact.
2. Economic factors. Changes in the mode of production, industrialization, urbanization, remittance and market expansion alter class structure, occupations and family life (Marx stressed the economic base).
3. Demographic factors. Population growth, migration, changes in birth and death rates and age structure affect resources, settlement and family size. Foreign employment and rural-urban migration are major forces in Nepal.
4. Cultural factors. Diffusion, acculturation, new ideas, values and innovations, and contact between cultures, transform beliefs and customs.
5. Political and legal factors. Revolutions, the end of the Rana regime, the 1990 and 2006 movements, the republic and federalism, and legislation (e.g., abolition of untouchability) reshape social relations.
6. Educational and ideological factors. Education spreads scientific thinking, awareness of rights and gender equality; religion and ideology (Weber's Protestant ethic) can promote or resist change.
7. Physical environment. Earthquakes, floods, climate change and resource depletion force relocation and new ways of living.
8. Social movements and leadership. Women's, Dalit and indigenous movements and reformers drive change in norms.

Usually several factors act together, and change in one area (e.g., technology) leads to change in others.

A research proposal is a formal written plan, submitted before a study begins, that states what the researcher intends to study, why it is important, and how the study will be carried out. It convinces a supervisor, committee or funding body that the problem is worth studying and that the researcher has a feasible, scientific plan.

Major components of a research proposal

1. Title. Short, clear and specific to the problem.
2. Introduction / background. Context of the topic and statement of the problem.
3. Statement of the problem. The gap or issue to be investigated.
4. Objectives. General and specific objectives, stated measurably.
5. Research questions / hypotheses. What is to be answered or tested.
6. Significance (rationale). Who benefits and why the study matters.
7. Literature review. Earlier studies, theories and the gap the study fills.
8. Conceptual / theoretical framework. Key variables and their relationships.
9. Methodology. Research design, study area, population and sample, sampling technique, data collection tools (questionnaire, interview, observation), data sources, and analysis methods.
10. Limitations and delimitations; ethical considerations.
11. Work plan and budget. Timeline (Gantt chart) and cost.
12. References and appendices.

Formulating a sample proposal

• Title: Impact of Mobile Phone Use on Study Habits of Undergraduate Students in Kathmandu.
• Problem: Students spend long hours on mobile phones, and it is unclear whether this helps or harms study.
• Objectives: To find the average daily usage; to examine its relationship with academic performance.
• Hypothesis: Higher non-academic phone use is associated with lower academic performance.
• Significance: Helps colleges and parents frame guidance.
• Methodology: Descriptive survey; sample of 100 students chosen by simple random sampling; structured questionnaire; analysis by percentages and correlation.
• Plan: Three months; budget for printing and travel.
• References: In a standard style such as APA.

Research in social science is the systematic, objective investigation of social phenomena to describe, explain and predict them. Its major concepts are the following.

1. Concept. An abstract idea formed from observation and used to describe phenomena, such as class, status, power, socialization.
2. Construct. A concept deliberately defined for a theory or study, e.g., social capital, intelligence.
3. Variable. A characteristic that takes different values. Types include independent (cause), dependent (effect), intervening and control variables; they may be qualitative or quantitative.
4. Hypothesis. A testable tentative statement about the relationship between variables (null and alternative hypotheses).
5. Theory. A set of logically linked propositions that explains a phenomenon and guides research.
6. Operationalization and measurement. Defining concepts in observable terms and measuring them with scales (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio).
7. Population, sample and sampling. The whole group studied versus a representative subset, selected by probability or non-probability methods.
8. Reliability and validity. Reliability is consistency of measurement; validity is whether the tool measures what it should.
9. Objectivity and value neutrality. Findings should be free from personal bias (Weber).
10. Research design and methods. Exploratory, descriptive, explanatory, experimental designs; quantitative (survey, statistics) and qualitative (interview, participant observation, case study) approaches.
11. Primary and secondary data. Data collected first-hand versus existing sources like census and reports.
12. Ethics. Informed consent, confidentiality, no harm to participants.
13. Generalization. Extending findings from the sample to the wider population.

Nationhood means the development of a shared sense of identity, territory, history and political unity among people. In Nepal the process has been long and gradual.

1. Ancient and medieval period. The area was divided into small principalities: the Kirat rulers in the east, the Licchavi dynasty (from about the 4th-5th century CE) in the Kathmandu valley, and later the Malla kingdoms (Kathmandu, Patan, Bhaktapur). The Khas-Malla kingdom in the west and the Baise and Chaubise principalities existed. The valley developed a culture and art, but there was no single nation.

2. Unification under Prithvi Narayan Shah (1743-1775). The Gorkha king began unifying the small states, conquering Kathmandu valley in 1768-69. He described Nepal as "a garden of four varnas and thirty-six jatis" (asali hindustan), and his Dibya Upadesh laid down ideas of self-reliance and national protection. Successors, such as Bahadur Shah, extended the state from the Tista to the Kangra.

3. Anglo-Nepal War and Sugauli Treaty (1814-16). Defeat by the British East India Company led to loss of territory and fixed the present-day boundaries, shaping the territorial identity of Nepal.

4. Rana rule (1846-1951). Power remained with hereditary prime ministers. Nepal stayed independent but isolated; the Muluki Ain of 1854 codified a caste-based hierarchy. Hindu law and the language of the court (Khas Nepali) were promoted.

5. Panchayat period (1960-1990). The Panchayat system promoted "one language, one dress, one nation" and a Hindu monarchical state identity, which suppressed other languages and cultures and left many groups feeling excluded.

6. Democratic movements. The 1951 revolution ended Rana rule; the 1990 People's Movement restored multiparty democracy and recognized Nepal as multiethnic and multilingual; the Maoist conflict (1996-2006) raised issues of inclusion.

7. Republic and federalism. The 2006 People's Movement and the Constituent Assembly abolished the monarchy (2008) and declared a federal democratic republic. The Constitution of 2015 defines Nepal as secular, with seven provinces, emphasizing inclusion and identity.

Conclusion. Nationhood evolved from small kingdoms through military unification to a more inclusive civic nation, though challenges of ethnic, regional and caste inclusion continue.

Yes, technology plays a very important role in the development of society. Technology is the application of scientific knowledge to practical purposes, and sociologists regard it as a central driver of social change (Ogburn's cultural lag theory, Marx's forces of production).

Positive roles

1. Economic development. Machines, electricity and computers raise productivity, create new industries and jobs (e.g., IT and outsourcing) and increase income.
2. Communication. Mobile phones, the internet and social media link people across distance, strengthen families separated by migration, and spread information and democratic participation.
3. Education. E-learning, online libraries and digital classrooms widen access, as seen during COVID-19 closures.
4. Health. Vaccines, diagnostic equipment and telemedicine raise life expectancy and reduce mortality.
5. Agriculture and infrastructure. Irrigation, fertilizers, hydropower, roads and transport improve living standards and reduce isolation of remote areas of Nepal.
6. Governance and services. E-governance, digital banking (e-Sewa, Khalti), online tax and passport services save time and reduce corruption.
7. Social change. Technology changes gender roles, work patterns and urban life.

Negative effects

• Unemployment through automation, widening digital divide between rich and poor, urban and rural.
• Cybercrime, privacy loss, addiction, weakening of face-to-face relations.
• Environmental pollution and resource depletion.
• Cultural lag, when values and institutions change more slowly than technology.

Conclusion. Technology is not good or bad in itself; its effect depends on how society uses it. With proper policy, education and ethics, it is a vital instrument of development.

(d) August Comte

Comte coined the term "sociology" in 1838 and is regarded as its founder, hence the "father of Sociology".

(b) Sociology is the holistic study of human culture.

This is not true of sociology. The holistic study of human culture is the concern of anthropology, while sociology studies society and social relationships scientifically, aims at value-neutrality and informs social policy and planning.

(a) Formalistic school and Synthetic school of thought

The formalistic school (Simmel, Tonnies, Weber) treats sociology as a specific science of social forms. The synthetic school (Durkheim, Hobhouse, Sorokin) treats it as a general science that synthesises the findings of all social sciences.

(d) Social Conflict

Associations, organizations and groups are structural units of social life. Social conflict is a social process, not a unit.

(c) Consanguineal kin

A father's brother is related by blood (descent), so he is a consanguineal kin. Affinal kin are related through marriage, and fictive kin through ritual or custom rather than blood or marriage.

(c) Enculturation

Enculturation is the process of learning one's own culture, its norms and values, from birth. Acculturation is cultural change through contact with another culture.

(c) Socialization

Socialization is the lifelong process through which a society transmits its values, norms and behaviour patterns to individuals so that they can function as its members.

(c) Technology is often diffused from developing areas to developed ones.

This statement is not true. Technology is usually diffused from more developed areas to developing ones. The other statements correctly describe cultural diffusion.

(c) Qualitative data

Sociology has traditionally relied mainly on qualitative methods such as observation, interviews and case studies to understand meanings and social relationships, although quantitative methods are also used.

(a) Caste

Ascribed status is assigned at birth without effort, as with caste, sex or race. Class, being an engineer and being a social reformer are achieved (or largely achieved) statuses.