E-Governance

Definition

E-governance (electronic governance) is the use of information and communication technology (ICT) by government to deliver services, exchange information, carry out transactions and integrate systems, so that governance becomes more efficient, transparent, accountable and citizen-centred.

Scope of e-governance in the modern era

1. G2C (Government to Citizen): online services such as passport, citizenship and license applications, tax filing, bill payment, birth/death/marriage registration, and grievance redressal.
2. G2B (Government to Business): company registration, licenses, customs, e-procurement, tax and VAT filing.
3. G2G (Government to Government): information sharing among departments and between central, provincial and local levels (integrated databases, intranet, e-office).
4. G2E (Government to Employee): payroll, attendance, training, e-leave and service record management.
5. Transparency and anti-corruption: publishing budgets, tenders and decisions, Right to Information, public feedback.
6. Citizen participation (e-democracy): online voting, e-consultation, social media engagement, mobile apps.
7. Service domains: education, health (e-health), agriculture, land records, transport, police and justice, banking and digital payments.
8. Smart and open governance: open data, cloud, big data, AI and mobile governance for planning and decision making.

The scope is thus not just websites but the complete redesign of how government works, serves people and engages them.

Good governance

Good governance is the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority in a way that is transparent, accountable, participatory, effective, equitable and follows the rule of law, so that the needs of people are met and public resources are managed properly.

Characteristics (UNDP)

• Participation of citizens
• Rule of law
• Transparency
• Responsiveness
• Consensus orientation
• Equity and inclusiveness
• Effectiveness and efficiency
• Accountability
• Strategic vision

Implementing good governance using ICT

ICT also needs supporting legal frameworks, trained staff, reliable infrastructure and citizen awareness to deliver good governance.

Current scenario of e-governance in Nepal

Nepal has made steady progress in e-governance, supported by policy, infrastructure and a growing number of online services, though many challenges remain.

Policy and legal framework

• IT Policy 2000 (revised 2010), Electronic Transactions Act 2063 (2008), National ICT Policy 2015, and the Right to Information Act 2064.
• Digital Nepal Framework (2019) identifies eight sectors and many initiatives for digital transformation. The Information Technology Bill, National Cyber Security Policy and the Digital Nepal Acceleration programme are in progress.
• Institutions: Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, Department of Information Technology, National Information Technology Center (NITC) with the Government Integrated Data Centre (GIDC), and Office of the Controller of Certification.

Implemented services

• Online services: e-passport, driving license and vehicle registration, PAN/VAT and tax filing (IRD), company registration (OCR), e-procurement (Public Procurement Monitoring Office, bolpatra), customs (ASYCUDA), Nagarik App, national ID and civil registration, online land and revenue systems.
• Hello Sarkar citizen complaint system, government websites and the Nepal Government Portal (nepal.gov.np), Nepal Single Window.
• Digital payments through connectIPS, mobile banking and wallets; e-learning and e-health initiatives; government email and intranet.
• Local governments have started online registration of vital events and municipal services.

Challenges

• Digital divide: uneven internet access and low digital literacy, especially in rural areas.
• Poor integration between systems, duplicated data and lack of interoperability.
• Limited funds, trained manpower and resistance to change in bureaucracy.
• Cyber security, privacy and weak enforcement of laws.
• Dependence on donors and inconsistent continuation of projects.

Overall, Nepal is moving from simple web presence to transactional services, and the focus is now on integration, national ID, digital payment and citizen-centred service delivery.

Guideline for designing e-governance implementation strategies

A good strategy turns the vision of e-governance into practical, phased and measurable actions. The following steps are commonly used.

1. Define vision, objectives and scope: state what the government wants to achieve (better service, transparency, cost saving) and which services and departments are covered.
2. Assess readiness: study the existing infrastructure, ICT skills, legal framework, culture and citizen needs (e-readiness assessment, stakeholder analysis).
3. Obtain political commitment and leadership: appoint a champion, form a steering committee and secure sustained support and funding.
4. Re-engineer business processes: simplify and redesign procedures before computerising; do not simply automate bad processes.
5. Legal and policy framework: enact laws for e-transactions, digital signature, privacy, cyber security and data sharing.
6. Develop infrastructure and architecture: networks, data centres, cloud, standards for interoperability, security, and common platforms (national ID, payment gateway).
7. Prioritise and phase projects: start with high-impact, low-risk services (quick wins), then move to complex ones; use pilot projects before scaling.
8. Build capacity: train officials and citizens; create awareness and ensure change management.
9. Citizen-centric design and access: include channels like kiosks, mobile and local language so that the poor and rural people can use services.
10. Partnerships and funding: use public-private partnership, donors and local government cooperation.
11. Security and privacy: protect data and build trust.
12. Monitoring, evaluation and sustainability: set indicators (cost, time, satisfaction), review regularly, collect feedback and improve.

Critical flow model of digital governance

The critical flow model (Bhatnagar / Heeks-type description of information flows) views digital governance as the flow of information through the key links of the governance system and judges success by how well these flows are improved by ICT. Its idea is that any e-governance project will succeed only if the critical flows of data, decisions and services between actors are identified and supported.

Main flows (actors)

• Government to citizen (G2C): service delivery and information from state to the public.
• Citizen to government (C2G): requests, applications, complaints, payments, feedback and participation.
• Government to business and business to government (G2B/B2G): licences, taxes, procurement, regulation.
• Government to government (G2G): internal coordination between agencies and levels.
• Government to employees (G2E).

Elements considered

1. Data and information: the content that flows (records, forms, decisions).
2. Process and decision flow: how information moves along the workflow, from entry to approval.
3. Technology/channel: web, mobile, kiosk, e-mail, which carry the flow.
4. Actors/people and institutions: the senders and receivers, who must be skilled and willing.
5. Context: laws, culture and infrastructure that enable or block the flow.

Use: the model helps to find bottlenecks (delay, duplication, loss, corruption) in the flow, redesign them with ICT, and measure benefits such as faster service, lower cost, transparency and accountability. If a critical flow is broken at any point (for example no database sharing between two offices), the whole service fails.

Institutional and infrastructural preparedness for a successful e-governance project

Before launching an e-governance project, the government must make sure that the organisation and the technical base are ready.

Institutional preparedness

• Leadership and political will: strong commitment from top leaders, with a project champion.
• Legal and policy framework: laws for e-transactions, digital signatures, data protection, cyber crime and recognition of electronic records.
• Organisational structure: a dedicated agency or IT unit with clear roles and responsibilities, coordination between ministries and with local governments.
• Business process reengineering: simplification of rules and procedures before computerisation.
• Human resources and capacity: trained IT and administrative staff, change management to reduce resistance, continuous training.
• Funding and sustainability: adequate budget, public-private partnership, and plans for maintenance.
• Standards and governance: interoperability standards, data sharing policy, monitoring and evaluation mechanism.
• Citizen awareness and trust.

Infrastructural preparedness

• Connectivity: reliable networks (fibre, mobile broadband), internet bandwidth to government offices and rural areas.
• Hardware and software: computers, servers, data centres, cloud, applications, databases, and common platforms such as national ID and payment gateways.
• Power supply: stable electricity and backup.
• Security infrastructure: firewalls, PKI, backup and disaster recovery.
• Access points: community information centres, kiosks, mobile services for those without own devices.
• Maintenance and support: help desks and technical support.

When both are in place, the project can be implemented smoothly and used by citizens; missing either one is a main reason for e-governance failure.

(a) G2C2G

G2C2G (Government to Citizen to Government) describes an interaction cycle in which the government provides a service or information to citizens (G2C), and the citizens respond by sending information, feedback, applications, complaints or payments back to the government (C2G). It forms a two-way loop that completes a service.

• Example: the government publishes tax forms online, citizens fill and submit tax returns and pay, and the government processes them and issues receipts.
• Other examples: grievance portals, online surveys, e-voting, Nagarik App.
• Benefits: closer citizen participation, feedback for improving policy and services, transparency, faster transactions, and lower cost.

(b) Digital Divide

The digital divide is the gap between people who have access to ICT (internet, computers, mobiles) and the skills to use it, and those who do not.

• Causes: poverty, lack of infrastructure in remote areas, low education and digital literacy, language barriers, gender and age differences, disability.
• Effects: unequal access to e-governance services, education, jobs and information, which increases social and economic inequality.
• Reducing it: expanding broadband and mobile coverage, community information centres, low-cost devices, local-language content, digital literacy programmes and subsidies.
• In Nepal there is a clear urban-rural divide.

(Any two to be answered.)

E-governance maturity model

An e-governance maturity model describes the stages through which a government's e-governance evolves, from a basic online presence to a fully integrated, citizen-centred digital government. It helps governments assess their present level and plan the next step. A commonly used model (Layne and Lee, also Gartner/UN stages) has the following levels.

Levels

1. Level 1: Presence / Cataloguing (Emerging)

   • Government has websites that give static information about departments, laws, forms and contacts.
   • One-way flow from government to citizen; little interaction. Low cost and easy.

2. Level 2: Interaction (Enhanced)

   • Websites allow search, downloading of forms, email contact, feedback and online enquiries.
   • Limited two-way communication but no complete service online.

3. Level 3: Transaction

   • Complete services are done online: filing taxes, applying for licences, paying bills and fees, e-procurement, with secure payment and authentication.
   • Requires back-office integration, security and legal support (digital signature).

4. Level 4: Vertical integration

   • Local, provincial and central government systems are linked in the same function, so that data flows between levels (for example land records or tax across levels).

5. Level 5: Horizontal integration / Transformation

   • Systems of different departments and functions are integrated across agencies, giving a single window or one-stop portal.
   • Citizens see government as one entity, with personalised and proactive services, shared databases, national ID, and no need to know which department does what.

(UN stages express the same idea as emerging, enhanced, transactional and connected/networked presence.)

Summary of features

Advanced levels give greater benefits but need more investment, change in organisation, security and citizen trust.

Data warehousing

A data warehouse is a centralised repository that is subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant and non-volatile, built to support analysis and decision making rather than day-to-day transactions. Data from many operational sources (databases, files, sensors) is extracted, cleaned, transformed and loaded (ETL) into the warehouse, and is then queried with OLAP tools, reports and dashboards. Smaller subject-specific subsets of a warehouse are called data marts.

Data mining

Data mining is the process of discovering previously unknown, valid and useful patterns, trends and relationships in large volumes of data using statistics, machine learning and database techniques. Main tasks are classification, clustering, association rule mining, regression and prediction, and outlier detection. It is one step of the Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) process: data cleaning, integration, selection, transformation, mining, pattern evaluation and presentation.

Role in e-agriculture

E-agriculture uses ICT to improve farming, markets and rural services. Large amounts of data (weather, soil, crop, price, pest, input and yield records) are generated by farmers, research stations, meteorological offices and markets.

Role of data warehousing

• Integrates scattered data (soil tests, rainfall, crop production by district, market prices, fertiliser and seed stock, subsidies) into one consistent store.
• Keeps historical data for many seasons and years, so season-wise and region-wise comparison is possible.
• Gives planners, extension workers and farmers quick access to reports, e.g. district-wise production, price trends and input demand.
• Supports policy decisions such as subsidy planning, crop insurance and food-security monitoring.

Role of data mining

• Yield prediction and crop recommendation: regression and classification on soil, weather and past yield suggest the best crop and variety for a plot.
• Price forecasting: time-series mining of market prices tells farmers when and where to sell.
• Pest and disease early warning: association rules link weather conditions with outbreaks, so alerts can be sent in advance.
• Clustering of farms or regions with similar soil and climate to target advice and inputs.
• Weather and drought/flood pattern analysis for risk planning and insurance.
• Outlier detection to find abnormal yield or input use, and fraud in subsidies.

Together: the warehouse provides clean, integrated historical data, and mining extracts knowledge from it. The result is better advice, lower risk and higher income for farmers, and evidence-based planning for the government.

Evolutionary stages in e-governance applications

E-governance does not appear at once. Government agencies normally move through a sequence of stages, each more advanced than the last, from simply being on the web to fully integrated, citizen-centred service. The commonly described stages are as follows.

1. Presence (Emerging/Information stage) Government departments create basic websites that give static information: addresses, contact details, rules, forms to download and notices. Communication is one-way, from government to citizens.

2. Interaction (Enhanced stage) Websites become more useful. Citizens can search for information, download and email forms, send queries and feedback, and receive replies. There is limited two-way communication but no complete online service.

3. Transaction (Transactional stage) Services are completed fully online: paying taxes and bills, applying for licences, passports and registrations, filing returns, e-procurement. This needs secure payment, authentication (digital signature, passwords) and back-office computerisation.

4. Transformation / Integration (Connected stage) Departments are linked across levels and agencies (G2G). Citizens deal with one portal or one-stop window instead of visiting many offices. Data are shared, processes are re-engineered, and the government is organised around citizen needs rather than departmental boundaries.

5. Participation (Political participation / e-democracy) Citizens take part in decisions through e-voting, online consultation on policy and laws, social media, e-petitions and grievance systems. This is the most mature stage and builds transparency and accountability.

Countries and offices may be at different stages for different services. Moving through these stages needs infrastructure, laws, trained staff, security and citizen awareness.

Importance of implementing e-governance

E-governance is the use of ICT by government to deliver services, exchange information and involve citizens. Its implementation is important because it makes government services faster, cheaper and more transparent.

• Efficiency and speed: online application and processing reduce delays and paperwork.
• Convenience and access: services are available 24 hours, from home or a nearby centre, which saves travel time and cost, especially for rural citizens.
• Transparency and less corruption: tracking of applications and records reduces the discretion and personal contact in which bribery occurs.
• Accountability: service times and officer actions are recorded and can be monitored.
• Cost saving: less paper, printing, storage and staff time for both citizens and government.
• Better decision making: digital data supports planning and policy.
• Inclusion and citizen participation: feedback and grievance systems give citizens a voice.

Example: Nagarik App and online services in Nepal

Earlier, a citizen needed to go to the ward or district office, wait in queues and carry paper copies to get a document. With the Nagarik App, the citizen can keep digital copies of the citizenship certificate, licence and other documents on a phone, and obtain services such as the Social Security Fund, vehicle and license information and verification online. Similarly, online vehicle tax and Department of Transport services, and the online company registration and tax filing systems let citizens complete the work from home. The result is lower cost, less waiting and less chance of corruption.

Current global trends in the growth of e-governance

1. Mobile governance (m-governance): services are delivered through smartphones, SMS and apps, since mobile phones reach more people than computers. Many countries now follow a "mobile-first" approach.
2. Cloud computing: governments move to government clouds and shared services to cut cost and scale quickly.
3. Open data and transparency: public datasets are released through open data portals so that citizens, researchers and businesses can use them.
4. Artificial intelligence and automation: chatbots, document processing, fraud detection, predictive analytics and smart decision support.
5. Big data and analytics: evidence-based policy making using data from many agencies.
6. Digital identity and single sign-on: national ID (e.g. Aadhaar in India, e-Estonia's ID card) lets citizens use many services with one login.
7. Social media and e-participation: consultation, feedback and grievance handling through online platforms.
8. Internet of Things and smart cities: sensors for traffic, waste, energy and safety.
9. Blockchain: secure land records, certificates and voting pilots.
10. Cyber security and privacy: data protection laws and stronger security are growing along with digital services.
11. Citizen-centric, whole-of-government and "digital by default" services: integrated one-stop portals instead of separate departmental services.
12. Sustainable and inclusive development: use of e-government to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals and reduce the digital divide.

According to the UN E-Government Survey, Denmark, Estonia, Singapore, South Korea and others lead, and the overall global index has been rising each survey.

Realized level and its sublayers of the e-governance model

Models of e-governance describe the layers through which the vision of digital government is turned into working services. In the layered model, the realized level is the level at which the planned e-governance systems are actually put into operation and the benefits are experienced by the users (citizens, businesses, employees). It is the "delivery" layer in which technology, process and people come together.

Its sublayers are:

1. Service delivery layer: the actual services reaching the users through channels such as web portals, mobile apps, kiosks, common service centres, call centres and counters (G2C, G2B, G2E).
2. Application layer: the e-governance applications and software, such as tax systems, land records, registration, e-procurement and licensing, that carry out the service logic.
3. Process (back-office) layer: re-engineered workflows, databases, and integration between departments (G2G) that make the services run.
4. Infrastructure layer: networks, data centres, computing hardware, cloud, security and power on which the applications run.
5. Support layer: laws and policies, standards and interoperability, trained manpower, funding, and citizen awareness and training.

Success at this level is judged by whether the services are accessible, reliable, secure, affordable and used. If any sublayer is weak (for example poor connectivity or no trained staff), the whole level suffers.

Data warehousing and data mining in census

A census produces huge datasets on population, age, sex, households, education, occupation, migration, housing and disability for every ward and district.

• Data warehouse: integrates results from many census rounds, surveys and registers in one store, allowing multi-dimensional (OLAP) views such as district by age group by year, and trend comparison between censuses.
• Data mining: clustering of districts with similar demographic and social conditions; classification and prediction of population growth, migration and ageing; association between education, income and household characteristics; detecting errors and duplicate entries.
• Uses: planning of schools, hospitals, roads and housing; allocation of budget and constituencies; targeting welfare schemes at the poorest groups.

In prices of essential commodities

Prices of rice, flour, oil, sugar, vegetables, fuel and medicine are collected daily from many markets.

• Data warehouse: stores historical price, supply, import and stock data by commodity, market and date for analysis of seasonal and regional differences.
• Data mining:
  • Time-series forecasting predicts price rise before festivals or in shortages.
  • Association and correlation analysis links fuel price, exchange rate, transport blockade or weather with price changes.
  • Anomaly detection finds hoarding, black marketing or cartel pricing.
  • Clustering groups markets with similar price behaviour.
• Uses: timely government action (buffer stock, import, price control), inflation monitoring, and consumer and farmer information.

IT tools used to deliver services to citizens

1. Websites and web portals: one-stop government portals giving information, forms and online services (e.g. Nepal's government portal, department websites).
2. Mobile applications and SMS: apps such as Nagarik App, and SMS alerts and USSD for those without internet.
3. Kiosks and common service centres: computer terminals at public places, post offices or village centres, with an operator, for people who have no computer.
4. Email and social media: for notices, feedback and grievances (Facebook, Twitter, Hello Sarkar call centre).
5. Call centres and helplines: voice support for information and complaints.
6. Databases and information systems: land records, civil registration, vehicle and driving licence systems, GIS.
7. Electronic payment systems: online banking, mobile wallets, digital payment of taxes and fees.
8. Digital signature and authentication: secure identification of users and documents (PKI, national ID, biometrics, OTP).
9. Cloud computing and data centres: hosting services and data.
10. Electronic forms and document management / e-file systems: for paperless processing.
11. GIS and remote sensing: for land, disaster and planning services.
12. Smart cards and biometrics: national ID, e-passport, driving licence.
13. Radio, TV and digital signage: to spread information to those with low connectivity.

(a) Cloud governance

Cloud governance is the set of policies, rules, roles, processes and controls by which an organisation (or government) manages the use of cloud computing so that it is secure, compliant, cost-effective and aligned with its goals. In e-governance it covers:

• policy on which data and services may be placed on public, private or government cloud;
• data security, privacy, data residency (data kept inside the country) and legal compliance;
• roles and responsibilities, access control and identity management;
• service level agreements (SLA) with providers, vendor lock-in and exit planning;
• cost management, monitoring, audit and risk management;
• standards, interoperability and disaster recovery.

Good cloud governance lets government use the cloud to cut cost and scale quickly while protecting citizens' data.

(b) Nagarik App

Nagarik App is a mobile application of the Government of Nepal (developed under the Government of Nepal's digital Nepal initiative) that gives citizens digital access to government services and documents. Main features:

• digital storage of documents such as citizenship, driving licence, PAN, voter card and passport details, with verification by QR/ID;
• access to services such as Social Security Fund, vehicle and licence information, and other government services, with ID-based login;
• reduces repeated visits to government offices and paper copies.

It is an example of G2C e-governance, improving convenience and transparency.

Current scenario of cyber law in Nepal

• The main law is the Electronic Transactions Act, 2063 (2008) and its Rules (2064). It gives legal recognition to electronic records and digital signatures, creates the Controller of Certification and certifying authorities, and defines computer-related offences (hacking, unauthorised access, damage to computer systems, publishing illegal material, fraud, breach of confidentiality) with punishments. A Cyber Bureau under Nepal Police investigates cyber crime, and an IT Tribunal hears cases.
• Other relevant laws: the Individual Privacy Act, 2075 (2018), the Right to Information Act, 2064, the Constitution of Nepal 2072 (privacy and information rights), the Banking Offence and Payment and Settlement laws, the Copyright Act, and the National Cyber Security Policy, 2080 (2023).
• Gaps: the ETA is old and does not fully cover modern problems such as social media abuse, data protection, cloud, e-commerce, cryptocurrency, AI, cross-border crime and child online protection. Enforcement capacity, digital forensics and awareness are limited, and a modern IT/Cyber Security law and Data Protection law have been under discussion for years.

E-governance initiatives by the Government of Nepal

• Policy and plans: IT Policy 2057 and later policies, e-Government Master Plan (2006), the Digital Nepal Framework (2019) with sectors such as agriculture, health, education, energy, tourism and finance; the Digital Nepal Acceleration Project.
• Infrastructure: Government Integrated Data Centre (GIDC) and Disaster Recovery Centre, the Government Network (Nepal Government Wide Area Network), fibre expansion by Nepal Telecom and Nepal Electricity Authority, and the National ID project.
• Applications: Nagarik App, online driving licence and vehicle services, Online Company Registration (OCR), e-passport, IRD online tax filing, customs system ASYCUDA / National Single Window, e-procurement (PPMO), Hello Sarkar complaint system, e-Bhumi / land records, FCGO's Sutra and TSA/FMIS, online public service commission applications, Nepal Police online FIR/complaint, NID registration.

Challenges

1. Weak internet and electricity in rural and mountain areas.
2. The digital divide and low digital literacy.
3. Limited trained human resources and high staff turnover.
4. Lack of interoperability and duplicated systems between agencies; weak integration.
5. Outdated cyber laws, weak data protection and cyber security, and low trust in online payment.
6. Resistance to change from officials, and bureaucratic procedures that are not re-engineered.
7. Limited budget, donor dependence, and sustainability and maintenance problems.
8. Political instability and changes in leadership, and slow implementation, with weak monitoring.
9. Language and accessibility barriers for citizens.

Why e-governance infrastructure is vital

Infrastructure is the foundation on which all e-governance services run. Without reliable networks, computing facilities and data storage, even the best application cannot reach citizens.

• It decides the availability, speed and reliability of services.
• It enables integration and data sharing between agencies.
• It provides security, backup and disaster recovery for citizens' records.
• It allows services to scale as users increase, and reduces long-term cost through sharing.
• It is a basis for reaching rural areas and reducing the digital divide.

Network infrastructure This consists of the internet backbone (optical fibre, microwave, satellite), the government wide area network connecting ministries, provinces and local governments, local area networks in offices, mobile networks (4G/5G) and community or rural connectivity (e.g. Rural Telecommunication and Universal Access Fund projects). In Nepal it links 77 districts and 753 local levels to central systems, supports citizen access through mobile data and kiosks, and carries secure traffic using VPN and firewalls. Challenges are difficult terrain, cost, and dependence on a few international gateways.

Computing infrastructure This includes servers, storage, end-user computers, laptops and smartphones, operating systems, databases, middleware and government cloud / virtualisation. It runs the application software such as tax, land, vehicle and civil registration systems, and the end-user devices used by staff and by citizens in service centres. Standardised, shared computing resources avoid each office buying its own and make maintenance and licensing easier.

Data centres A data centre hosts servers and stores government data in a secure, climate-controlled facility with redundant power, cooling, fire protection and physical security. Nepal has the Government Integrated Data Centre (GIDC) at Singha Durbar, with a Disaster Recovery Centre at Hetauda, and a separate National Data Center of the Department of Information Technology. They provide hosting, backup, high availability, email, web and cloud services for agencies, and keep citizen data within the country. Challenges: reliable electricity, cost of maintenance, skilled staff, and governance of data.

Conclusion: strong, secure and integrated networks, computing and data centres are needed together; weakness in one reduces the quality of all e-governance services in Nepal.

Difference between e-government and e-governance

E-governance applications (short explanation)

• G2C: services to citizens, such as Nagarik App, online licences, passports, birth and marriage registration, bill payment.
• G2B: company registration, tax and customs, e-procurement.
• G2G: inter-departmental data sharing, e-file, integrated financial management systems.
• G2E: services to employees, such as payroll, leave and the Sutra accounting system.
• Others: e-health, e-education, e-agriculture, e-voting and grievance handling (Hello Sarkar).

Digital divide in the Nepali context The digital divide is the gap between people who have access to ICT (devices, internet, skills) and those who do not. In Nepal it exists between:

• urban and rural/mountain areas (connectivity, electricity, price of data);
• rich and poor, men and women, young and old, and between educated and uneducated groups;
• language groups (services mostly in Nepali or English), and between persons with and without disabilities.

Effects: some citizens cannot use online services, and may be excluded or depend on middlemen. Measures include expanding rural connectivity, community information centres and kiosks, digital literacy programmes, low-cost devices, mobile and local-language services, and offering offline alternatives alongside online ones.