Narrow and Wider Meaning of Curriculum

1. Narrow Meaning of Curriculum

In its narrow sense, curriculum refers to the prescribed course of study — the list of subjects, textbooks, and lessons that students must study in a particular class or programme. It is limited to what is taught and learned within the four walls of the classroom.

Key features:

• It is subject-centred and content-based.
• It includes only the formal syllabus, textbooks, and teaching materials.
• It is pre-planned and prepared by experts or a curriculum development centre.
• It focuses on theoretical knowledge and examination results.
• It is static and rigid — it does not easily change with time and situation.
• Example: The syllabus of BEd First Year prescribed by Tribhuvan University.

2. Wider Meaning of Curriculum

In its wider sense, curriculum refers to the total sum of all the experiences — planned and unplanned — that a learner gains inside and outside the school. It includes everything that influences the all-round development of the child.

Key features:

• It is child-centred and experience-based.
• It includes the formal syllabus plus co-curricular activities (games, music, debate, tours, scouting, cultural programmes).
• It includes hidden curriculum — values, attitudes, behaviour, and school environment.
• It is dynamic and flexible — it changes according to the needs of the learner and society.
• It aims at the all-round development — physical, mental, social, emotional, and moral.
• Example: The whole school life of a student — classroom teaching, library, playground, discipline, and social interaction.

3. Difference Between Narrow and Wider Meaning

Conclusion

Thus, the narrow meaning of curriculum is limited to the prescribed course of study, while the wider meaning covers all the experiences a learner gains in and out of school. For the complete development of a child, the wider meaning of curriculum is more useful and comprehensive.

How Learning Theories Influence Curriculum Development

Introduction. Learning theories explain how learners acquire, process and retain knowledge. Since curriculum is the planned set of learning experiences, the way we believe learning happens directly shapes what is taught, how it is organised, how it is delivered and how it is evaluated. Thus learning theories act as the psychological foundation of curriculum development.

1. Behaviourism (Skinner, Thorndike) and curriculum.

• Learning is a change in observable behaviour through stimulus–response–reinforcement.
• Curriculum is built on specific, measurable behavioural objectives (Bloom's early model).
• Content is broken into small sequential steps with immediate feedback and practice (programmed instruction, teaching machines).
• Evaluation stresses objective testing of terminal behaviours.
• Influence seen in competency-based and mastery-learning curricula.

2. Cognitivism (Piaget, Bruner, Ausubel) and curriculum.

• Learning is internal organisation of knowledge into mental structures (schemata).
• Curriculum is stage-appropriate (Piaget's concrete to abstract), uses spiral organisation (Bruner) so key concepts recur at higher levels, and stresses meaningful learning by linking new content to prior knowledge (Ausubel's advance organisers).
• Emphasis on discovery learning, concept mapping and problem solving rather than rote memorisation.
• Evaluation focuses on understanding and transfer, not mere recall.

3. Constructivism (Vygotsky, Dewey) and curriculum.

• Learners actively construct knowledge from experience and social interaction.
• Curriculum becomes learner-centred, activity-based and flexible, with scope for projects, group work and real-life problems.
• Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development supports graded tasks and scaffolding; Dewey's ideas support experience-centred, child-centred curricula.
• Teachers act as facilitators; evaluation uses portfolios, observation and continuous assessment.

4. Humanistic theory (Rogers, Maslow) and curriculum.

• Learning is self-directed and grows from the learner's needs, feelings and values.
• Curriculum gives space to optional subjects, co-curricular activities and affective objectives, aiming at all-round personality development.

5. Social learning theory (Bandura) and curriculum.

• Learning occurs by observation, imitation and modelling.
• Curriculum includes demonstration, role-play, peer learning and value education, and gives importance to the teacher as a role model.

Conclusion. Each theory contributes a distinct dimension — behaviourism gives precision of objectives and evaluation, cognitivism gives logical structure and sequence, constructivism gives activity and learner participation, and humanism gives personal relevance. A balanced modern curriculum therefore draws on all of them rather than following one alone. In this way learning theories directly determine the selection, organisation, transaction and assessment of curriculum content.

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Influencing Factors in Curriculum Development

Curriculum development is not done in a vacuum; it is shaped by several interacting factors. The major ones are:

1. Philosophical factors – aims, values and beliefs about education (idealism, pragmatism, naturalism).
2. Psychological factors – learning theories, needs, interests, maturation and individual differences of learners.
3. Sociological factors – social needs, culture, traditions, values, religion and social change.
4. Political factors – national policy, ideology, constitution and government priorities.
5. Economic factors – national income, manpower needs, employment pattern and cost of education.
6. Technological factors – ICT, media, scientific advancement and digital resources.
7. Academic/discipline factors – nature of subject matter, knowledge structure and research findings.
8. Environmental/geographical factors – climate, topography, local resources and ecology.
9. Institutional factors – school structure, teacher competence, physical facilities and examination system.
10. International factors – global trends, donor agencies and comparative education.

Explanation of One Factor: Psychological Factors

Psychological factors are among the most powerful determinants of curriculum. They supply the scientific basis for deciding what to teach, when to teach and how to teach.

• Learning theories decide the form of objectives and methods. Behaviourism favours behavioural objectives, drill and reinforcement; cognitivism favours spiral sequencing and concept maps; constructivism favours activity-based, learner-centred methods.
• Needs and interests of learners determine the selection of content. A curriculum that ignores children's interests causes boredom and dropout; hence child-centred curricula include games, stories, local examples and co-curricular activities.
• Maturation and developmental stages (Piaget) decide the grade placement of content. Abstract algebra, for example, is placed at the secondary level, not in the primary.
• Individual differences require variety in content and evaluation — remedial, enrichment and optional courses, plus continuous assessment instead of a single terminal examination.
• Motivation and readiness influence the arrangement of learning experiences so that each step prepares the learner for the next.

Conclusion. Curriculum development is thus a multi-factorial process. Among these, psychological factors are decisive because they link the curriculum directly to the nature of the learner; a curriculum that is psychologically unsound cannot produce effective learning, however good its philosophical or sociological intentions may be.

Five Principles for Determining Objectives of a Curriculum

Curriculum objectives state what learners should achieve after a course of study. The following five principles guide their determination:

1. Principle of relevance to needs and interests Objectives should be framed according to the needs, interests, age level and maturity of the learners, as well as the needs of society. An objective that ignores the learner's real life and capacity will not be achieved. For example, objectives for primary level should be simple and activity-based, matching the child's mental level.

2. Principle of consistency with aims and philosophy Objectives must be derived from the broader aims of education and the national philosophy. If the national aim is to produce skilled and productive citizens, the objectives of each subject should contribute to that aim. Objectives at the subject level should be consistent with the school-level and national-level aims.

3. Principle of clarity and specificity Objectives should be clear, definite and stated in measurable behavioural terms. Vague statements like "to develop good character" are difficult to evaluate. Objectives such as "to name the parts of a flower" or "to solve two-digit multiplication problems" are specific and observable, so achievement can be assessed.

4. Principle of practicality and attainability Objectives should be realistic and achievable within the available time, resources, teachers' competence and the learners' ability. Objectives that are too high or too broad cannot be fulfilled and create frustration. They should be within the reach of both the teacher and the learner.

5. Principle of comprehensiveness and balance Objectives should cover all domains of learning — cognitive, affective and psychomotor — and should give balanced attention to knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. A curriculum that aims only at memorization neglects the development of the whole personality of the learner.

Conclusion These principles ensure that curriculum objectives are meaningful, achievable and useful for selecting content, teaching methods and evaluation procedures.

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Major Criteria for Organizing Contents of a Curriculum

Content organization means arranging the selected subject matter in a systematic order so that learning becomes effective. The major criteria are:

1. Sequence Content should be arranged from simple to complex, known to unknown, and concrete to abstract. Each new learning should build upon the previous one. For example, addition is taught before multiplication, and letters before words.

2. Continuity The same important elements should recur at different levels with increasing depth. A skill or concept introduced at primary level should be repeated and expanded at secondary level, so that learning becomes permanent.

3. Integration Content should be organized in a unified manner, relating different subjects and linking school knowledge with life outside school. Integration helps learners see the relationship among ideas rather than treating subjects as isolated bits.

4. Balance Due weightage should be given to all subjects, units and domains — theory and practice, arts and science, academic and co-curricular activities. Overemphasis on one area makes the curriculum one-sided.

5. Relevance and usefulness Content should be related to the needs, interests and problems of learners and society. It should be useful for daily life, further study and the world of work.

6. Flexibility Content should be adaptable to local conditions, individual differences and changing social needs. A rigid curriculum cannot serve learners of different abilities and localities.

7. Child-centredness Content should be selected and arranged from the learner's point of view — their experience, interest and level of understanding — rather than from the subject specialist's point of view alone.

Conclusion When content is organized on these criteria, it becomes meaningful, learnable and effective in achieving the objectives of the curriculum.

The National Curriculum Framework for School Education in Nepal, 2063 (2006 AD) — prepared by the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) — identified a number of curricular issues and challenges facing school education in Nepal. Any four of them are described below.

1. Curriculum not linked to national needs and local context The framework pointed out that the existing school curriculum was largely academic, urban-centred and borrowed in nature. It gave little space to the local environment, indigenous knowledge, occupations, culture and the real needs of Nepali society. As a result, what children learned in school was not useful in their daily life and work, and the curriculum failed to prepare skilled and productive citizens required for national development. The challenge was therefore to make the curriculum relevant, practical and contextual, linking it with national life, local resources and the world of work.

2. Overloaded and theoretical curriculum Another major issue was that the curriculum was heavily loaded with a large number of subjects and content, most of which was theoretical and information-based. Children had to memorise facts rather than understand and apply them. The burden was especially heavy in the secondary level, where many compulsory subjects left little room for choice, creativity or activity-based learning. The challenge was to reduce and integrate content, make learning competency-based and activity-oriented, and give learners some freedom of choice according to their interest and ability.

3. Lack of balance between cognitive and non-cognitive (life-skill) development The framework noted that the curriculum gave excessive importance to knowledge and cognitive achievement, while neglecting the non-cognitive aspects such as life skills, moral values, health, sports, art, music, vocational skills and social responsibility. Education thus became examination-centred rather than all-round personality development. The challenge was to bring a proper balance between knowledge, skills and attitudes so that the curriculum contributed to the holistic development of the child.

4. Weak implementation, monitoring and evaluation system The framework also identified the gap between curriculum design and its implementation as a serious challenge. Textbooks and teaching materials did not reach schools in time, teachers were not adequately oriented to the new curriculum, and the examination system still tested rote memory rather than the intended competencies. There was weak monitoring, supervision and feedback, so the curriculum could not be revised and improved on the basis of evidence. The challenge was to strengthen teacher training, timely supply of materials, continuous assessment and a proper monitoring and evaluation mechanism.

Other issues mentioned in the framework (for reference): lack of inclusion of marginalised groups, gender and regional disparity in access to quality curriculum, weak linkage between school and higher/vocational education, insufficient use of information technology, and lack of research and periodic revision of the curriculum.

Formative and Summative Evaluation: Uses in Education

Evaluation is the systematic process of collecting, analysing and interpreting information about learners' progress to make educational decisions. On the basis of purpose and timing, it is broadly classified into formative and summative evaluation. Both are complementary and together make the teaching–learning process effective.

1. Formative Evaluation

Formative evaluation is conducted during the teaching–learning process, continuously and informally, to monitor learning and improve instruction. Its major uses are:

• Diagnosis of learning difficulties: It identifies where pupils are facing problems, which concepts are unclear and what misconceptions they hold, so that remedial teaching can be arranged in time.
• Providing continuous feedback: It gives immediate feedback to both teacher and students about the strengths and weaknesses of learning, which motivates learners and corrects errors before they become permanent.
• Improvement of teaching methods: On the basis of results, the teacher can modify teaching strategies, instructional materials and the pace of teaching to suit the learners' needs.
• Guidance for individual learners: It helps the teacher to recognise slow learners, gifted learners and learners with special needs, and to provide individualised attention and guidance accordingly.
• Basis for remedial teaching: Weak areas revealed by formative tests become the basis for remedial classes, extra practice and re-teaching.
• Making classroom decisions: It assists in decisions such as grouping of students, promotion of mastery learning, selection of activities and adjustment of lesson plans.
• Development of self-evaluation: Since students come to know their own progress, they learn to assess themselves and take responsibility for their learning.

2. Summative Evaluation

Summative evaluation is conducted at the end of a course, term or unit to judge the overall achievement of learners. Its major uses are:

• Certification and grading: It provides the basis for awarding grades, marks, certificates, diplomas and degrees to students.
• Promotion and selection: It is used to decide promotion to the next class, selection for higher studies, scholarships and admission to competitive courses.
• Judging the effectiveness of the programme: It evaluates the effectiveness of the curriculum, textbooks, teaching methods and the whole educational programme of the school or institution.
• Reporting to guardians and authorities: It supplies reliable information to parents, guardians, school administration and educational authorities about the achievement level of students.
• Accountability: It makes teachers, schools and the educational system accountable for the quality of education and the use of resources.
• Placement and classification: The results help in placing students in appropriate streams, levels or ability groups.
• Motivation and standard maintenance: It encourages students to work hard for final examinations and helps maintain academic standards.

Conclusion

Formative evaluation is process-oriented and aims at improving learning while it is going on, whereas summative evaluation is product-oriented and aims at judging the final achievement of learners. Formative evaluation supplies the continuous information that makes summative results meaningful, and summative evaluation gives the final verdict on the outcomes of the process. Therefore, a balanced educational system should use both types of evaluation side by side — formative for improvement and summative for certification — so that the twin purposes of development and judgement of learners are fulfilled.

A good test is one that measures what it is intended to measure accurately, fairly and consistently. The essential qualities of a good test are as follows:

1. Validity Validity is the most important quality of a good test. A test is valid if it measures exactly what it is supposed to measure — no more and no less. For example, a test meant to measure mathematical reasoning should not depend mainly on reading ability. Validity may be content validity (adequate coverage of the syllabus), construct validity (measuring the intended trait or ability) and predictive validity (forecasting future performance).

2. Reliability Reliability means consistency and dependability of scores. A reliable test gives nearly the same results when administered to the same group under similar conditions, or when scored by different examiners. It is judged by test–retest, split-half or inter-rater methods. A test cannot be valid unless it is reasonably reliable.

3. Objectivity A good test should be free from the personal bias, judgement or prejudice of the examiner. Scoring should be so definite that different examiners award the same marks to the same answer. Objective-type items and clearly stated marking schemes increase objectivity.

4. Comprehensiveness (Adequate Coverage) The test should cover all the important objectives, contents and skills of the syllabus in proper proportion. It should sample the whole course, not a few selected topics, so that the results represent the pupils' real achievement.

5. Discriminating Power A good test should be able to distinguish between bright, average and weak pupils. Items that all pupils answer correctly or all fail do not discriminate and should be avoided. Item analysis helps in selecting items of suitable difficulty and discrimination.

6. Practicability (Usability) The test should be practical in terms of time, cost, energy and facilities. It should be easy to administer, score and interpret, should not be too long or too expensive, and should be suitable for the age and level of the pupils.

7. Adequate Difficulty Level The items should be neither too easy nor too hard. Generally, an average difficulty level of about 50 per cent is considered suitable, so that the test motivates pupils and spreads the scores.

8. Clear and Precise Language The questions should be simple, clear, unambiguous and within the vocabulary of the pupils. Instructions must be clear so that pupils know exactly what to do.

9. Proper Length and Time The test should contain enough items to sample the syllabus adequately and should allow sufficient time for average pupils to attempt it comfortably.

10. Economy and Ease of Scoring A good test should be economical in preparation, administration and scoring. Simple scoring keys and objective items reduce the time and labour of the examiner.

Conclusion Thus, a good test should be valid, reliable, objective, comprehensive, discriminating, practicable and of proper difficulty level. These qualities together make a test a dependable tool for measuring pupils' achievement and for improving teaching–learning.

Continuous Assessment System — Meaning and Process

Meaning

Continuous Assessment System (CAS) is a system of evaluating a student's learning regularly and continuously throughout the academic session, rather than judging the student only through a single final examination. In this system, the teacher observes, records, and assesses the student's progress in knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour day by day, week by week and term by term, and uses this information to improve teaching and learning.

In the Nepali context, CAS was introduced with the School Sector Reform Programme (2005) and is implemented in basic level (Grades 1–8) under the Continuous Assessment System (CAS) and later in secondary level as internal assessment carrying a fixed weightage in the final result. Its main features are:

• It is continuous — assessment goes on throughout the year, not at one point of time.
• It is comprehensive — it covers cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.
• It is diagnostic and remedial — weaknesses are identified and corrected at once.
• It is student-centred and participatory — self-assessment, peer assessment and parental involvement are used.
• It is criterion-referenced — the student is compared with the expected learning outcomes, not with other students.

Process of Continuous Assessment System

The process generally follows these steps:

1. Setting learning outcomes and indicators At the beginning of the session, the teacher lists the expected learning outcomes (competencies) of each subject and unit, and prepares simple indicators of achievement for each outcome.

2. Planning assessment tools and techniques The teacher selects suitable tools — observation schedule, checklist, rating scale, portfolio, project work, class work, homework, unit test, oral questioning, practical work, participation in discussion, etc. — and prepares a time-table for assessment.

3. Collecting information (implementation) During teaching, the teacher continuously collects evidence of learning by:

• asking oral questions and encouraging classroom participation;
• checking class work, homework and copy correction;
• conducting unit tests after each unit;
• observing behaviour, discipline, cooperation and group work;
• assigning project work, presentation, practical and creative activities;
• maintaining a portfolio and cumulative record of each student.

4. Recording and maintaining records Marks or grades obtained from each activity are entered in the CAS register / progress sheet of each student. Anecdotal records and checklists are also maintained so that progress over time is visible.

5. Analysing and diagnosing The teacher analyses the records to find out which students have not achieved the outcomes and in which specific area (concept, skill or attitude) the difficulty lies.

6. Providing remedial teaching and feedback Slow learners are given extra coaching, remedial classes, peer help and individual guidance. Feedback is given to students and parents through parent–teacher meetings and report cards.

7. Re-assessment After remediation, the student is assessed again on the same competency to see whether the weakness has been removed. Thus assessment becomes a cycle of teach → assess → remediate → re-assess.

8. Final reporting and certification At the end of the session, the marks obtained in all the continuous activities are totalled and converted into the prescribed weightage (e.g., 25 marks internal out of 100 in secondary level) and added to the final examination result. A progress report showing both scholastic and non-scholastic achievement is issued to the guardian.

Conclusion

Thus, CAS is a learner-centred, ongoing and comprehensive process of assessment in which teaching, learning and evaluation go together. It reduces examination fear, promotes regular study habits, respects individual differences and helps in the holistic development of the child. Its success, however, depends on the sincerity, skill and regularity of the teacher.

First alternative: Computation of median

Position of median:

$\frac{N}{2}=\frac{20}{2}=10$

The cumulative frequency first exceeds 10 in the class 50–60, so the median class is 50–60.

For the median class:

• Lower limit, $L=50$
• Previous cumulative frequency, $cf=5$
• Frequency of median class, $f=8$
• Class width, $h=10$

Median formula:

$M = L + \frac{\frac{N}{2}-cf}{f} \times h$

Substituting:

$M = 50 + \frac{10-5}{8} \times 10$

$M = 50 + \frac{5}{8} \times 10$

$M = 50 + 6.25 = 56.25$

Median = 56.25

Interpretation

The median value is 56.25. It means that 50% of the observations lie below 56.25 and 50% lie above 56.25. The median class is 50–60, so most of the data are concentrated in this class interval. The central tendency of the distribution is around 56.25.

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OR alternative: Item analysis

Given:

• Higher group correct responses, $R_H=7$ out of $N_H=10$
• Lower group correct responses, $R_L=2$ out of $N_L=10$

Difficulty level

$P = \frac{R_H+R_L}{N_H+N_L}$

$P = \frac{7+2}{10+10} = \frac{9}{20} = 0.45$

Difficulty index = 0.45

Discriminating index

$D = \frac{R_H-R_L}{N_H}$

$D = \frac{7-2}{10} = \frac{5}{10} = 0.50$

Discriminating index = 0.50

Interpretation

• Difficulty index $0.45$ means the item is moderately difficult. It is neither too easy nor too hard and is generally acceptable.
• Discriminating index $0.50$ means the item has good discriminating power. It clearly distinguishes high-achieving students from low-achieving students.

Therefore, the item is a good item for the test.

1. Introduction

Local curriculum (स्थानीय पाठ्यक्रम) refers to the curriculum developed and implemented at the local level to address the specific needs, culture, language, geography, and livelihood of a particular community. In Nepal, the concept gained legal and constitutional footing after the federal democratic restructuring, particularly through the Constitution of Nepal (2072 BS), which placed school education under the jurisdiction of local governments (Palikas). The School Education Act (Eighth Amendment, 2074 BS) and the National Curriculum Framework (2076 BS) further institutionalized local curriculum as a component of school education.

2. Policy Provisions

a) Constitutional basis: Schedule 8 of the Constitution assigns basic and secondary education to local governments, empowering them to design and implement local curriculum.

b) School Education Act (2074 BS): Provides that local levels may determine part of the curriculum (local content) within the national framework, in coordination with the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC).

c) National Curriculum Framework (2076 BS): Recognizes local curriculum as a means to make education relevant, contextual, and inclusive. At the basic level (Grades 1-8) it reserves a share of instructional time (about 20%) for local content and subjects, and it allows a smaller, locally decided share at the secondary level. It further stresses:

• Identification of local knowledge, skills, and resources.
• Participation of teachers, parents, students, and community experts.
• Integration of local language, culture, occupation, and environment.

d) Curriculum Development Centre guidelines: Provide a framework for preparing, approving, and evaluating local curriculum at the school and Palika level.

e) Federal structure: The CDC develops the national curriculum; Provincial governments support adaptation; Local governments approve and monitor local curriculum implementation.

3. Practices of Implementation

a) Formation of subject committees: Schools form local curriculum development committees comprising head teachers, subject teachers, guardians, and local experts.

b) Situation analysis: Schools conduct a needs assessment (SWOT/situation analysis) of local resources, occupations, language, festivals, and indigenous skills.

c) Selection of content: Content is drawn from local agriculture, handicrafts, folk music, traditional medicine, local history, and environmental issues.

d) Time allocation: A few periods per week, within the share fixed by the curriculum framework, are allotted depending on the grade and local decision.

e) Teaching-learning activities: Project work, field visits, community interviews, and practical demonstrations are commonly used.

f) Resource materials: Locally prepared textbooks, pamphlets, and audio-visual materials supplement national textbooks.

g) Assessment: Continuous assessment (project reports, participation, practical skills) is emphasized over written examination.

h) Monitoring and support: Resource persons and Palika education officers provide technical support and monitoring.

4. Challenges

• Lack of trained teachers and technical expertise at the local level.
• Insufficient budget and instructional materials.
• Weak coordination between CDC, province, and Palika.
• Risk of duplication and inconsistency across schools.
• Limited awareness among parents and stakeholders.
• Difficulty in assessing and certifying local curriculum learning.

5. Conclusion

The policy of local curriculum in Nepal reflects the spirit of federalism, inclusion, and contextual education. Legally and constitutionally, local governments are empowered to design and implement it. In practice, however, implementation remains uneven due to resource, capacity, and coordination constraints. Strengthening teacher training, ensuring adequate funding, and improving coordination among the three tiers of government are essential for effective implementation. When properly executed, local curriculum can make education meaningful, culturally rooted, and economically relevant to Nepali children.

Planning a Teacher-Made Test

A teacher-made test is an achievement test prepared by the classroom teacher to measure the extent to which students have attained the instructional objectives of a particular unit, subject, or course. Its quality depends largely on systematic planning. The process involves the following steps:

1. Determining the purpose of the test The teacher first decides why the test is being given — whether for placement, diagnosis, formative feedback during teaching, or summative grading at the end of a term. The purpose determines the nature, length, and difficulty of the test. For example, a diagnostic test needs many items on basic skills, while a summative test covers the whole course.

2. Identifying and analysing the instructional objectives The teacher lists the objectives actually taught and classifies them into knowledge, understanding, application, and higher-order skills (analysis, evaluation, creation), preferably using Bloom's taxonomy. This ensures the test measures all intended learning outcomes and not merely memorisation.

3. Preparing the content outline (blueprint / table of specifications) The teacher lists the content areas or units and assigns weightage to each according to the time and importance given during teaching. A two-way table is then prepared showing content areas against objectives, with the number of items or marks in each cell. This blueprint ensures balanced coverage, prevents over-weighting of any topic, and serves as a guide while writing items.

4. Selecting the types of test items Depending on the objectives and the level of learning to be measured, the teacher chooses objective items (multiple choice, true–false, matching, completion) for knowledge and quick coverage, and essay-type or short-answer items for understanding, application, and expression. A suitable combination is usually preferred.

5. Preparing the test items The teacher writes items in clear, simple, and unambiguous language, avoiding clues, double negatives, and irrelevant difficulty. Each item should measure one specific learning outcome. More items than required are written so that weak ones can be discarded after review.

6. Reviewing and editing the items The drafted items are reviewed by the teacher and, where possible, by colleagues or subject experts. Errors of content, language, and structure are corrected, and items are checked against the blueprint for coverage and weightage.

7. Arranging the items and preparing the scoring key Items are arranged logically — usually from easy to difficult, and objective items before essay items — to build student confidence. A scoring key or marking scheme is prepared in advance, with model answers and mark distribution for essay questions, to ensure objective and consistent scoring.

8. Preparing the instructions and try-out Clear instructions are written for students (time, marks, compulsory and optional questions) and for the scorer. Where feasible, the test is tried out on a small group to estimate difficulty level, discriminating power, and time required, and items are revised accordingly.

9. Administering, scoring, and interpreting results The test is administered under proper conditions, scored with the key, and the results are analysed item-wise to find out which objectives were achieved and which need re-teaching. This feedback improves both teaching and future tests.

10. Recording and reporting Finally, marks are recorded systematically and reported to students, parents, and the school authority, along with interpretation of strengths and weaknesses.

In short, planning a teacher-made test is a continuous process of deciding purpose, analysing objectives, preparing a blueprint, writing and reviewing items, and using the results for improvement of instruction.

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Performance-Based Evaluation

Meaning. Performance-based evaluation (also called performance assessment) is a mode of evaluation in which students are asked to demonstrate what they know and can do by actually performing a task or producing a product, rather than by answering questions on paper. The student is assessed on the process, the product, or both, using pre-determined criteria. Examples: writing a laboratory report, conducting an experiment, solving a problem on the board, delivering a speech, preparing a map or model, teaching a micro-lesson, or completing a project.

Key features.

• It focuses on application of knowledge and skills in real or realistic situations.
• The task is authentic and often open-ended, allowing more than one correct response.
• Evaluation is done through observation, checklists, rating scales, and rubrics.
• It assesses higher-order abilities — analysis, evaluation, creation, problem solving, communication, and psychomotor skills — which objective paper-pencil tests cannot measure.
• It is usually criterion-referenced: the student's performance is compared with set standards, not with other students.

Limitations.

1. Subjectivity in scoring — different evaluators may award different marks for the same performance unless a detailed rubric is used.
2. Time-consuming and costly — preparing tasks, rubrics, and observing each student individually takes much time and effort.
3. Limited content coverage — only a few objectives or skills can be sampled, so the whole course cannot be assessed.
4. Poor reliability — results may vary from occasion to occasion, task to task, and rater to rater.
5. Difficulty in quantification — qualitative aspects such as creativity, attitude, and cooperation are hard to convert into marks.
6. Halo effect and personal bias — the evaluator's impression of the student may influence the score.
7. Heavy demand on teacher competence — the teacher must be skilled in task design, observation, and rubric construction.
8. Practical constraints — large class size, lack of materials, and fixed time-table make individual performance assessment difficult.

Suggestions for constructing a performance test.

1. State the objective clearly — decide exactly which skill or competency is to be assessed (e.g., "prepares a slide and observes it under the microscope").
2. Select a realistic and meaningful task — the task should resemble a real-life situation and be within the students' ability and resources.
3. Define the criteria in advance — list the specific behaviours, steps, or qualities to be observed.
4. Prepare a rubric or rating scale — describe each level of performance (e.g., excellent, good, satisfactory, needs improvement) with clear descriptors and mark weightage.
5. Prepare checklists for process skills — for procedures, list the steps in order so that observation becomes objective.
6. Standardise the conditions — give the same task, time, materials, and instructions to all students.
7. Train the evaluators — where more than one teacher scores, they should discuss and practise using the rubric to reduce variation.
8. Observe and record immediately — record the performance at the time of observation, not from memory later.
9. Use more than one task and more than one occasion — this improves reliability and coverage.
10. Provide feedback — inform the student of strengths and weaknesses so that the assessment becomes a means of learning.
11. Combine with other tools — use performance tests along with written tests, projects, and portfolios for a complete picture of achievement.
12. Keep records systematically — maintain cumulative records of performance for reporting and guidance.

Conclusion. Performance-based evaluation is a valuable supplement to traditional paper-pencil tests because it measures what students can actually do. Its weaknesses of subjectivity and limited coverage can be largely overcome by careful task design, clear criteria, well-prepared rubrics, and systematic observation.