Business Communication (old course)

Two-valued thinking

Two-valued thinking (black-and-white or either/or thinking) is the habit of seeing things in only two opposite categories, such as good or bad, right or wrong, success or failure, friend or enemy, and ignoring the many shades between them. The idea comes from general semantics.

Why it is a problem in communication

1. It distorts reality. Most things lie on a scale. A person is not simply "honest" or "dishonest", and a student is not simply "bright" or "dull".
2. It creates conflict. "You are either with us or against us" makes people defensive and shuts off discussion and compromise.
3. It leads to stereotyping and prejudice. All members of a group are labelled the same.
4. It limits choices and decision making. A manager who sees only "accept the proposal" or "reject it" misses alternatives and modifications.
5. It blocks listening and feedback. The speaker assumes his view is the only right one.
6. It produces extreme language such as "always", "never", "perfect" and "worthless", and causes false generalisations.

Examples: "Our product is a total failure" when sales fell 5 percent. "A manager who does not agree with me is my enemy."

Solutions

• Recognise that reality has many degrees and look for the middle ground and other alternatives.
• Use qualifying words such as "most", "often", "some", "to some extent" instead of "all", "always", "never".
• Think in terms of degrees and scales (for example, rate 1 to 10) rather than two extremes.
• Practise "and" and "both" thinking rather than "either/or".
• Ask "what else?" and gather more facts before judging.
• Listen to other viewpoints and be open to feedback.
• Separate facts from judgments, and avoid labels.
• Use "index" and "date" ideas (employee 1 is not employee 2; today is not last year).

Thus, awareness and careful, qualified language help us avoid two-valued thinking and communicate more accurately.

Two-valued thinking (also called either/or or black-and-white thinking) is the habit of seeing things in only two extremes: good or bad, right or wrong, friend or enemy, success or failure, ignoring the many shades between.

Why it is a problem

1. It distorts reality. The world is complex and most things lie between extremes. "He is either honest or dishonest" ignores partial truths.
2. It creates conflict. If one side is "all right", the other must be "all wrong", so compromise becomes impossible, as in labour-management disputes.
3. It limits choices and creativity. A person sees only two options and misses better alternatives.
4. It leads to prejudice and stereotyping. Whole groups are labelled good or bad.
5. It harms decisions and relations. Employees may be labelled "loyal" or "disloyal" with no room for improvement, and customers may be lost by absolute statements.

Solutions

• Look for the middle ground and a range of possibilities; ask "to what degree?"
• Use qualifiers such as "often", "sometimes", "up to a point".
• Avoid words like "always", "never", "all", "none".
• Think in terms of continuum or scale, e.g. 0 to 10, not yes/no.
• Listen to other viewpoints and accept that more than one may be partly right.
• Get more facts before judging, and separate facts from judgements.
• Generate several alternatives before deciding.

Real world: The real world is the world of actual things, people and events as they exist, independent of what we say or think about them. It is infinitely complex, and our words only describe parts of it.

Signs: A sign is anything (a word, sound, gesture, picture, symbol) that stands for something else. Words are signs for things in the real world; the sign is not the thing itself.

Sensory receptors: These are the sense organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin) through which we receive information from the real world. They pick up only a limited part of reality, so our knowledge of the world is always partial and filtered.

Opinions, attitudes and beliefs in communication

Meaning

• Opinion: a personal judgment about something, which may or may not be based on fact (e.g. "Online classes are less effective").
• Attitude: a relatively lasting tendency to feel and react positively or negatively toward a person, idea or thing (e.g. a favourable attitude to the company).
• Belief: a conviction that something is true, often held without proof and deeply rooted (e.g. "hard work always pays").

Together they form a person's viewpoint: how he sees things. Viewpoints are formed by experience, education, family, culture, religion, media, peer groups, occupation and emotions.

How they influence communication

1. Selective perception (filtering): we notice and remember what agrees with our views and ignore the rest.
2. Interpretation: the same message is understood differently by people with different views. A pro-union worker reads a wage notice with suspicion, whereas a manager reads it as fair.
3. Choice of words and tone: the sender's attitude shows in the language and non-verbal behaviour, which may create goodwill or resentment.
4. Acceptance or rejection: receivers accept messages that match their beliefs and resist those that conflict, so persuasion is hard.
5. Listening and feedback: a person with a fixed opinion listens poorly and argues instead of understanding.
6. Stereotyping and prejudice result from rigid beliefs and distort communication.
7. Relationships and climate: positive attitudes produce trust and cooperation; negative ones produce conflict.

Ways in which viewpoints change communication

• Different viewpoints of the same event. Management and workers may see a lock-out in different ways, causing misunderstanding.
• Shaping the message: a communicator who understands the receiver's viewpoint can adapt the language, examples and appeals to it (the you-viewpoint).
• Changing viewpoints: viewpoints are not fixed. New facts, experience, training and respectful discussion can change them, which then improves communication.
• Empathy and open-mindedness: being aware of one's own viewpoint and trying to see the other person's viewpoint reduces conflict.
• Using qualifiers ("in my opinion", "it seems to me") shows that statements are views, not facts.

Example: A manager believes that young employees are careless. When a young employee proposes a new method, the manager rejects it without listening. The employee feels undervalued and stops giving ideas. If the manager revised his view, communication and morale would improve.

Conclusion: Opinions, attitudes and beliefs act as filters through which every message passes. An effective communicator recognises them in both sender and receiver, adapts to them and keeps an open mind.

Meaning

Non-verbal communication is the sending and receiving of messages without words, through body movements, voice qualities, appearance, space, time, objects and silence. It often conveys feelings and attitudes more strongly than words.

Classification

1. Kinesics (body language): facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, posture, head movement, handshake.
2. Paralanguage (vocal cues): tone, pitch, volume, speed, pauses, sighs.
3. Proxemics (use of space): distance maintained between people (intimate, personal, social, public).
4. Chronemics (use of time): punctuality, waiting time, speed of reply.
5. Appearance and artifacts: dress, grooming, accessories, office decoration.
6. Haptics (touch): handshake, pat on the back.
7. Silence.
8. Environment and colour: layout, lighting, colours.

Two types in detail

Kinesics. Facial expression reveals emotion; a smile shows friendliness, a frown shows disapproval. Steady eye contact shows honesty and interest, whereas avoiding it may suggest nervousness. Upright posture shows confidence, slouching shows boredom. Gestures such as nodding, pointing and handshake emphasise or replace words. Meanings differ across cultures, so interpretation should be careful.

Proxemics. People keep different distances in different situations: intimate (up to about 0.5 m), personal (0.5 to 1.2 m), social (1.2 to 3.5 m) and public (beyond 3.5 m). Standing too close makes people uncomfortable, while too far seems cold. Seating arrangement and office layout also show status, e.g. a manager's desk across from a visitor shows formality. Preferred distances vary by culture and gender.

No, not entirely. The ability to make sounds and to speak is natural to humans, and children learn to talk without formal teaching. But effective communication, meaning communicating clearly, accurately and appropriately in business, is not natural. It needs knowledge, learning and practice: choosing words, organizing ideas, listening, understanding the receiver's viewpoint, and avoiding barriers. Because of this, many people communicate poorly and training in communication skills is necessary.

The Blocked Mind

The blocked mind is a malfunction of communication in which a person's mind is closed to new ideas, information or other viewpoints. Such a person has already made up his or her mind, so messages that disagree with it are ignored, distorted or rejected, and little real exchange takes place.

Causes

• Fixed beliefs, prejudice and stereotypes
• Fear of change, insecurity or ego
• Strong emotions such as anger or anxiety
• Habit, laziness or overconfidence
• Two-valued (either/or) thinking
• Past bad experience

Effects: misunderstanding, conflict, poor decisions, loss of trust and resistance to change in an organization.

How to unblock the mind

1. Become aware of your own biases and be willing to examine them.
2. Listen actively and with an open mind, without interrupting.
3. Try to see the situation from the other person's viewpoint (empathy).
4. Separate facts from opinions and judgements.
5. Avoid either/or thinking; look for alternatives and shades of grey.
6. Use qualifiers ("it seems", "so far") and avoid "always" and "never".
7. Ask questions and seek more information before deciding.
8. Control emotions; wait until calm before responding.
9. Accept that you may be wrong and be ready to change your mind.
10. Encourage others to express their ideas freely.

Definition: Non-verbal communication is the exchange of messages without using words, spoken or written. It uses body movements, voice qualities, space, time, appearance and other signals, and it often reveals feelings more truthfully than words.

Five types

1. Kinesics (body language): the study of body movements. It includes facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, posture, body shape and touch. A smile shows warmth, a firm handshake shows confidence, and avoiding eye contact may suggest nervousness or dishonesty.
2. Paralanguage (vocal cues): how something is said, not what is said. It includes tone, pitch, volume, speed, pauses, and sounds like sighing or laughing. The sentence "That's great" can sound sincere or sarcastic depending on tone.
3. Proxemics (space language): the use of personal space and distance. People keep different distances for intimate, personal, social and public situations, and the seating arrangement in an office also conveys status and relationship. Acceptable distance varies from culture to culture.
4. Chronemics (time language): the way time is used and understood. Being punctual shows respect and seriousness, while making others wait or being late may show disrespect or higher status. Time spent on a person shows his or her importance.
5. Appearance and artefacts (object language): dress, grooming, hairstyle, jewellery, office furniture and décor, and the neatness of documents. They create a first impression of a person's character, professionalism and status.

Colour, silence and symbols may also be added to these. Non-verbal signals should be consistent with the spoken message, and they should be interpreted with caution because their meaning differs between cultures.

(a) Fundamental truths of communication

1. Communication is a process of exchange. A message does not just move from sender to receiver; the receiver gives feedback and interprets it.
2. Meaning is in people, not in words. Words have no meaning in themselves; people assign meaning according to their own experience, so the receiver may understand differently from what the sender meant.
3. Words are not the things they represent. A word is only a symbol or map, and it leaves out most of what reality contains.
4. Communication depends on perception, which is selective and influenced by viewpoints.
5. Communication is continuous and unavoidable; even silence communicates.
6. Good communication is not automatic; it needs skill, planning and care, and its success is judged by the response of the receiver.

(b) The foundation of language

Language is built on symbols (words) that stand for things, ideas and feelings. Its foundation is the process of abstraction: out of the many different characteristics of objects and events, we pick out similar features and give them a common name. Because of this, language can group millions of individual things under a word like "chair" or "student", and communication becomes possible. The words become meaningful only when people agree on their use. Since language leaves out the differences and details, we must use it carefully.

No. Talking and listening come naturally to humans, but effective business communication does not. It must be learned and practised, because it needs planning, clear language, choice of the right medium and awareness of the receiver. Without such skill, messages are easily misunderstood.

The blocked mind

The blocked mind is a malfunction of communication in which a person's mind is closed to new information, ideas and viewpoints. The person has already decided what is true, and refuses to listen, learn or change. It is also called a closed mind or the "I know it all" attitude. Information and opinions that do not match the existing beliefs are rejected, ignored or distorted.

Causes: fixed habits and prejudices, pride, fear of change, strong emotions, past experience, and overconfidence in existing knowledge.

Effects: The person cannot learn, misses new facts, quarrels with those who differ, and makes poor decisions. Communication with such a person becomes one-sided and ineffective.

How to unblock the mind

1. Be open and willing to listen, and hear the whole message before judging it.
2. Accept that knowledge is incomplete. Since reality is infinitely complex, no one can know everything, and one can always learn more.
3. Question your own beliefs and assumptions and check them against facts and evidence.
4. Respect other viewpoints and try to see the matter from the other person's side.
5. Separate facts from inferences and opinions, and delay judgement until adequate facts are known.
6. Control emotions such as anger and pride, which block thinking.
7. Keep learning by reading, asking questions, travelling and meeting different people.
8. Avoid extreme words like "always" and "never," and use "etc." to remind oneself that there is more.

The grapevine is the informal network through which employees pass news, rumours and gossip by word of mouth, outside the official channels of the organisation.

Management should not suppress it, since this is impossible, but should accept it as a natural part of organisational life and use it. It can be used to find out employee feelings and spread information quickly, and false rumours can be corrected by giving timely and honest information through formal channels.

The statement of the problem says exactly what the report will investigate. It is usually one clear sentence or question.

Example: "The problem of this report is to find out why the sales of Himalayan Noodles in the Kathmandu Valley have fallen by 15% in the last two years, and to recommend measures to regain the lost market share."

It is normally followed by the scope, limitations and the purpose of the study.

Definition

Non-verbal communication (NVC) is the process of sending and receiving messages without words, through body movement, appearance, space, voice quality, objects and time. It often shows feelings and attitudes more truthfully than words, and it accompanies, repeats, replaces or contradicts spoken messages.

Five types of non-verbal communication

1. Kinesics (body language)

This covers body movements, posture, gestures, facial expression, eye contact and head movement. A smile shows friendliness, a frown displeasure, folded arms defensiveness, a firm handshake confidence, and steady eye contact interest and honesty.

2. Proxemics (use of space and distance)

The distance people keep between themselves shows their relationship. Four zones are commonly described: intimate (up to about 45 cm), personal (45 cm to 1.2 m), social (1.2 to 3.6 m) and public (more than 3.6 m). Seating arrangements and office layout also communicate status and openness.

3. Paralanguage (voice qualities)

This is how something is said rather than what is said: tone, pitch, volume, speed, pauses and stress. "Come here" said softly or sharply carries different messages. Sighs, laughs and silence are also parts of paralanguage.

4. Physical appearance and artifacts

Dress, grooming, hairstyle, jewellery, and the personal objects and surroundings such as the office furniture, car or decoration communicate status, profession, taste and seriousness. A neat business suit creates a different impression from casual dress.

5. Chronemics (use of time)

How people use time also sends messages. Being punctual shows respect and discipline, while arriving late or keeping someone waiting suggests carelessness or higher status. Meeting length and the time chosen for a call are also signals.

(Touch/haptics, i.e. handshakes, pats and hugs, is another commonly mentioned type and may be added in the same way.)

Conclusion

NVC is powerful, but its meaning depends on culture and context, so it should be interpreted carefully and in combination with the words used.

Two short notes are given below, on (a) and (b).

(a) Care in word choice: technical words, strong words, concrete words

Words are the basic material of writing, so they must be chosen with care.

• Technical words: These are special words used in a particular field (e.g. "debit", "equity", "bandwidth"). Use them freely when the readers belong to that field, because they are precise and save space. For general readers, avoid them or explain them in simple words.
• Strong words: Strong words are forceful and vivid, and they make the writing lively and direct. Prefer active, specific verbs and nouns ("we increased sales") to weak, vague ones ("sales were seen to go up"). Avoid weak intensifiers and camouflaged verbs.
• Concrete words: Concrete words refer to things that can be seen, counted or touched, and they create a clear picture ("a 25% fall in monthly sales", "a blue steel cabinet"), whereas abstract words ("a poor situation") are vague. Concrete words make the message clear and credible.

Careful word choice gives clarity, correctness, brevity and a suitable tone.

(b) Graphics in report writing

Graphics are visual aids such as tables, bar charts, line graphs, pie charts, pictograms, maps, flow charts, organization charts and photographs. They are used in reports to:

• present complex numerical information in a compact, easily understood form;
• show comparisons, trends and relationships quickly;
• add interest and break up long text;
• emphasize important facts and help readers remember them.

Rules for use: place the graphic close to the text that refers to it; give it a number and a clear title; label axes and units; cite the source; keep it simple and accurate; and mention it in the text. Different graphics suit different purposes: bar charts for comparison, line graphs for trends over time, pie charts for parts of a whole, and tables for exact figures.

To know your audience, you should find out before the talk:

• Who they are: number, age, sex, education, occupation and social background.
• What they know: their knowledge of and experience with the subject, so that you pitch the level correctly.
• What they need and expect: their interests, needs and reasons for attending.
• Their attitude: whether they are friendly, neutral or hostile to you and the subject.

Methods include asking the organizer, studying earlier audiences, talking to a few members, and observing reactions during the speech. The speaker then adapts language, examples and length accordingly.

Importance of communication in a business organization

Communication is the lifeblood of a business. Its importance lies in the following:

1. Coordination: it links departments and people so that they work towards common goals.
2. Planning and decision making: managers need accurate information to plan, decide and control.
3. Instruction and direction: orders, policies and procedures are passed to employees through communication.
4. Motivation and morale: clear information, feedback and recognition make employees satisfied and committed.
5. Customer and public relations: communication with customers, suppliers and the public builds goodwill, sales and a good image.
6. Problem solving and control: problems are reported and corrected early, and performance is checked.
7. Change and growth: it helps the organization adapt to new conditions and spread new ideas.

Main forms of organizational communication

1. Internal-operational communication: the exchange of messages within the organization for doing its work, in three directions.

• Downward: orders, instructions, policies and feedback from superiors to subordinates.
• Upward: reports, suggestions and complaints from subordinates to superiors.
• Horizontal: coordination between people or departments at the same level.

2. External-operational communication: the messages between the organization and outsiders such as customers, suppliers, banks, government and the media: orders, quotations, sales and complaint letters, advertising and public relations.

3. Personal communication: the informal, social exchange among members (conversation, gossip and the grapevine). It is unofficial, but it influences morale, relationships and the spread of information, and it can be used by wise managers.

Together, these forms keep the organization informed, coordinated and well regarded.

Meaning of abstraction

Abstraction is the process of leaving out details and picking out some common characteristics from many individual things, in order to name them with a single word. Language develops through this process. Because reality is infinitely detailed, each step upward drops more detail, so each higher-level word covers more things but says less about any one of them. This is the idea of the "abstraction ladder".

How the process works (with illustration)

Take a particular cow named "Bessie".

1. Real object (the process level): Bessie, a living animal with endless characteristics, which cannot be fully described by words.
2. Bessie the cow: we name this one animal and leave out many details such as its exact weight and every changing cell. This is the first abstraction.
3. Cow: we ignore the differences between Bessie and other cows (colour, age, size) and keep only the common features. The word now stands for the whole class.
4. Livestock: we drop the features that separate cows from buffaloes and goats.
5. Farm asset: we drop even more; now it includes machines and land.
6. Wealth: the highest level shown, which says very little about Bessie.

Other example: "Mr. Shrestha's Toyota car" becomes "car", then "vehicle", then "transport", then "asset".

Importance in language development

• It lets us talk about general classes instead of naming every object, which makes language economical, and it makes thinking, science and learning possible.
• It allows people to store and pass on knowledge across generations.

Dangers and lessons for communication

• High-level abstract words ("progress", "efficiency", "good service") are vague and can be understood differently by different people.
• A good communicator moves down the ladder and uses concrete examples, figures and specific words ("delivered within 24 hours" rather than "good service") to be clear.
• We should not confuse the word with the thing, because the word always leaves out something.

Blocked mind

A blocked mind is a closed mind: a state in which a person has stopped learning and refuses to accept new ideas, facts or viewpoints because he believes he already knows everything or because his opinion is fixed. The mind is "blocked" by pride, prejudice, fear, habit or past experience, and no new information gets through.

Extreme effects of a blocked mind

1. Communication fails: the person does not listen, interrupts, argues or pretends to listen, so messages are not understood.
2. Prejudice and stereotyping: people and groups are judged without evidence.
3. Inflexibility: the person refuses to change methods or accept change, which harms progress and the organization.
4. Poor decisions: facts are ignored and mistakes are repeated.
5. Conflict and bad relations: quarrels, hostility and loss of trust follow.
6. No personal growth: learning and creativity stop.
7. Extreme cases: fanaticism, violent intolerance and mental rigidity, or withdrawal and refusal to face reality.

Ways of unblocking the mind

1. Recognize the problem: admit that no one knows everything and that one's views may be wrong.
2. Listen actively: hear the other person fully before replying.
3. Be open to new ideas: read widely, travel, and meet people with different views.
4. Check facts: separate facts from inference and opinion and test beliefs against evidence.
5. See other viewpoints: put yourself in the other person's place and use the you-viewpoint.
6. Avoid two-valued, either-or thinking: accept that there are many shades between extremes.
7. Control emotions and pride: do not react defensively to criticism.
8. Keep learning: training, discussion and feedback keep the mind active.

An unblocked mind communicates better, solves problems more effectively and continues to grow.

Definition: Communication is the process of exchanging information, ideas, feelings and understanding between two or more people through a common system of symbols (words, signs or behaviour), so that the receiver understands the message as the sender meant it.

Origin: The word comes from the Latin communis, meaning "common", and the verb communicare, meaning "to make common, to share or to impart". Thus, communication basically means sharing common understanding between sender and receiver.

Two-valued (either-or) thinking can be overcome by:

1. Recognizing that most issues have many shades and degrees between two extremes (not just good or bad, right or wrong).
2. Using qualifying words such as "some", "often", "usually" and "to a degree" instead of "all", "always" and "never".
3. Looking for alternatives and middle courses before deciding.
4. Gathering more facts and listening to other viewpoints.
5. Using multi-valued, "more or less" thinking, and avoiding labels and stereotypes.

Three qualities of a successful interviewee:

1. Preparation: knows the organisation, the job and his or her own strengths, and has a neat resume and documents ready.
2. Confidence and positive attitude: answers honestly and clearly, keeps eye contact and good posture, and stays calm under pressure.
3. Good communication and appearance: is punctual, dresses suitably, listens carefully, and speaks politely and to the point.

Non-verbal communication (NVC)

Non-verbal communication is the sending and receiving of messages without words, through body movement, voice qualities, space, time, appearance, objects and environment. Research suggests that much of the emotional meaning of face-to-face communication is carried non-verbally. NVC repeats, complements, contradicts, substitutes for or emphasises verbal messages, and it is largely unconscious.

Classification

1. Kinesics (body language): facial expression, eye contact (oculesics), gestures, posture, body shape and movement.
2. Paralanguage (vocal cues): tone, pitch, volume, rate, pauses, stress, laughter, sighs.
3. Proxemics: use of space and distance (intimate, personal, social, public).
4. Haptics: touch.
5. Chronemics: use of time (punctuality, waiting).
6. Appearance and artefacts: dress, grooming, jewellery, hairstyle, objects.
7. Environment and silence: office layout, colour, lighting, and silence.

Elaboration of two types

(a) Kinesics (body language). It covers all body movements that carry meaning.

• Facial expression: a smile shows friendliness; a frown shows displeasure.
• Eye contact: steady contact shows honesty and interest; avoiding the eyes may suggest nervousness or lack of confidence (cultures differ).
• Gestures: a nod, a wave, a raised palm, a pointed finger.
• Posture: an erect posture shows confidence; slouching shows boredom or low interest.

(b) Proxemics (use of space). It studies how people use distance and space. Edward Hall identified four distances: intimate (up to 18 inches), personal (18 inches to 4 feet), social (4 to 12 feet) and public (more than 12 feet). A manager who sits behind a large desk signals authority; coming close to someone who does not want it causes discomfort. Distance preferences differ among cultures.

We can overcome two-valued thinking by recognising that most issues have many degrees between two extremes and looking for alternatives and middle ground. Use qualifying words such as "some", "often" and "to some extent" in place of "all", "always" and "never". Think in terms of scales, gather more facts before judging, avoid labels, and listen to other viewpoints.

Three qualities of a successful interviewee:

1. Thorough preparation: knows about the organisation and the job, and brings a neat resume and documents.
2. Confidence and honesty: gives clear, truthful answers and keeps a positive attitude and good eye contact.
3. Punctuality and presentable appearance: arrives on time, dresses properly, and is polite and a good listener.

Importance of communication in a business organization

Communication is the lifeblood of an organization. Its importance:

1. Planning and decision making: managers need accurate and timely information to plan and decide.
2. Coordination: it links departments and people toward common goals.
3. Direction and control: orders, instructions, rules and performance reports pass through it.
4. Morale and motivation: clear feedback, recognition and participation raise employee satisfaction and cut conflict and turnover.
5. Customer and public relations: advertising, sales, service and image-building depend on it.
6. Smooth operation and efficiency: reduces errors and wasted time and cost.
7. Change management and innovation: it spreads new ideas and helps employees accept change.
8. External dealings: with suppliers, banks, government and investors.

Main forms of organizational communication

A. Internal communication (within the organization)

1. Formal communication: follows official channels of the organization chart.
   • Downward: from superiors to subordinates (orders, policies, circulars).
   • Upward: from subordinates to superiors (reports, suggestions, complaints).
   • Horizontal (lateral): between people at the same level, to coordinate work.
   • Diagonal (crosswise): between people of different levels and departments.
2. Informal communication (the grapevine): unofficial, spontaneous talk based on social relationships. It spreads quickly and may carry rumour, but it also reveals employee feelings.

B. External communication with customers, suppliers, banks, government, shareholders and the public, through letters, advertising, press releases, reports and websites.

C. By mode: verbal (oral and written) and non-verbal.

The grapevine is the informal communication network in an organisation, based on social relationships and not on the official chain of command. It spreads quickly by word of mouth, may be partly rumour, and carries personal as well as work-related information.

How management should take it:

• Accept it as natural and unavoidable; it cannot be eliminated.
• Use it as a source of feedback on employee feelings and concerns.
• Give timely, accurate information through formal channels to reduce rumours.
• Keep an open, honest atmosphere, and correct false rumours quickly with facts.
• Use it carefully to spread useful news, without trying to control or punish it.

A blocked mind is a mind that has closed itself to new information, ideas and viewpoints. It operates on fixed, rigid assumptions, so it refuses to receive, examine or accept anything that conflicts with what it already "knows". Such a person has stopped learning and tends to see the world in black and white.

Extreme effects of a blocked mind

• Refusal to receive information: the person ignores or rejects messages that challenge existing beliefs, so communication fails before it starts.
• Distortion of messages: facts are bent to fit prior opinions (selective perception).
• Prejudice and stereotyping: people and groups are judged by labels rather than evidence.
• Two-valued thinking: everything is seen as right or wrong, good or bad.
• Extreme reactions: hostility, anger, withdrawal, fanaticism, or complete mental rigidity.
• Poor decisions in business: a manager with a blocked mind rejects employee suggestions, misses market change, and damages morale and relationships.

Ways of unblocking the mind

1. Recognise the block. Admit that your view is only one view and that you may be wrong.
2. Listen actively to opposing opinions without interrupting or judging.
3. Question your assumptions and ask "How do I know this?" before reaching a conclusion.
4. Seek new information by reading widely, travelling, and meeting people from different backgrounds.
5. Separate facts from inferences and opinions.
6. Use multi-valued thinking. Accept that there are degrees between "yes" and "no".
7. Stay flexible and open to change, since reality is always changing.
8. Take feedback from colleagues, and put yourself in the other person's position (empathy).

An open mind keeps the channels of communication working and lets the person adjust to changing reality.

Abstraction is the process of picking out some characteristics of an object or event and leaving out others, so that we can group many individual things under one general word. Language grows by moving from concrete particulars to general terms, and each step leaves out more detail. Alfred Korzybski and S. I. Hayakawa described this as the abstraction ladder.

Steps with illustration

Take a cow called "Bessie" (Hayakawa's example):

1. The actual living animal: a process of atoms and activity; we can never perceive it fully (the "process level").
2. "Bessie": a name for this particular cow. Many details are already left out.
3. "Cow": a word used for Bessie and all similar animals; individual differences (colour, age) are dropped.
4. "Livestock": leaves out what makes a cow different from a goat or a buffalo.
5. "Farm asset": leaves out features that make livestock different from machinery.
6. "Asset" / "wealth": a very high-level abstraction with very few characteristics.

Another example: Hari's Honda Shine, motorcycle, vehicle, means of transport, property.

Importance for language development

• Abstraction lets us classify and use a limited number of words for unlimited things.
• It permits general ideas, science, law and philosophy (words such as "justice", "democracy", "profit").
• It saves effort: we say "furniture" instead of listing every chair and table.

Danger

The higher we go, the vaguer the meaning and the more room for misunderstanding. A manager who says "improve performance" (high level) may leave staff confused. Good communicators move up and down the ladder, giving concrete examples ("increase sales by 10 per cent this quarter") along with general statements.

Communication is the process of exchanging information, ideas, feelings or opinions between a sender and a receiver so that a common understanding is reached. It involves a sender, message, medium, receiver and feedback.

Origin: The word comes from the Latin communis, meaning "common", and the verb communicare, "to share" or "to make common". Communication therefore means sharing something in common.

Before presenting, I assess the audience by finding out:

• Who they are: size, age, education, occupation and position.
• What they already know about the topic, so the level is right.
• What they need and expect, and why they are attending.
• Their attitude: friendly, neutral or hostile, and their interests.
• Cultural and language background.

During the talk, I also read their reactions (eye contact, expressions, restlessness, questions) and adjust my pace, examples and detail accordingly.

The statement of problem is the part of a report that states clearly and precisely what issue, question or situation the report investigates and why it needs attention. It defines the purpose and scope of the study, guides the collection and analysis of data, and tells the reader what the report will answer. It is usually written as a short, specific sentence or question, for example, "To find out why sales of the company have fallen by 15% in the last year."

Communication is the lifeblood of an organization. An organization is a group of people working together towards common goals, and without the exchange of information, ideas and instructions, no coordinated activity is possible.

1. Coordination of activities. Departments such as production, marketing, finance and personnel depend on each other. Communication links them so that their work is synchronised and duplication or conflict is avoided.

2. Basis for planning and decision making. Managers need accurate information about the market, costs, competitors and employees. Plans are communicated downward and feedback travels upward, so decisions rest on facts.

3. Direction and control. Managers issue orders, policies and procedures through communication, and then compare actual performance with standards through reports and feedback, correcting deviations.

4. Motivation and morale. Praise, clear goals, recognition and participation in decisions raise commitment. Employees who are kept informed feel they belong to the organization.

5. Leadership and delegation. Authority can be delegated only when tasks, expectations and limits are clearly communicated.

6. Training and development. Skills, knowledge and company values are passed to new and existing employees through instruction, manuals, meetings and discussions.

7. Public relations and external dealings. Communication with customers, suppliers, government, shareholders and the community builds goodwill, secures orders and protects the organization's image.

8. Conflict resolution and change. Open dialogue reduces misunderstanding and resistance, and eases the introduction of new methods or technology.

Information moves in several directions: downward (instructions), upward (reports, suggestions), horizontal (between peers) and through the informal grapevine. In short, an organization can plan, organize, direct and control only through effective communication.

Communication is imperfect because obstacles (barriers) can distort or block the message at every stage of the process. The main obstacles are as follows.

1. Physical barriers. Noise, distance, poor telephone lines, faulty equipment, bad lighting or poor layout of offices interfere with transmission.

2. Language and semantic barriers. Words have different meanings for different people. Jargon, ambiguity, technical terms, vague words and poor grammar cause misunderstanding.

3. Psychological barriers. Prejudice, fear, anxiety, anger, preconceived ideas, closed minds and lack of attention make people hear what they want to hear. Differences in perception and viewpoint distort meaning.

4. Organizational barriers. Long chains of command, too many levels, rigid hierarchy, status differences, lack of proper channels and information overload cause filtering and delay.

5. Personal barriers. Poor listening, lack of interest, mistrust of the sender, lack of confidence, poor memory and unwillingness to give feedback.

6. Cultural barriers. Different customs, values, gestures and attitudes to time or status create misinterpretation, especially across cultures.

7. Filtering and selective perception. The sender may withhold or soften unfavourable information, and the receiver may select only part of what is said.

8. Absence of feedback. Without feedback the sender cannot know whether the message was understood.

9. Timing and channel problems. Late messages, or a wrong medium (a written note for an urgent matter), reduce effect.

Overcoming them: use simple, clear language; choose the right medium; encourage feedback; listen actively; shorten channels; remove noise; be sensitive to culture; and check understanding before acting.

(a) Paralanguage

Paralanguage means the vocal but non-verbal elements that accompany speech and influence how words are understood: tone, pitch, volume, speed, pauses, stress, rhythm and sounds such as sighs, laughter or "hmm". The same sentence, "You did well", can be praise or sarcasm depending on tone. It reveals attitude and emotion, and when it conflicts with the words listeners usually trust the paralanguage. A communicator should control it by speaking at moderate pace, with variation in pitch and suitable pauses.

(b) Connotative meaning

Connotation is the emotional, personal or associative meaning a word carries beyond its literal (denotative) dictionary meaning. For example, "home" denotes a dwelling, but connotes warmth, family and security; "slim" and "skinny" denote similar body types but one is favourable and the other not. Connotations vary with people's experience and culture, so they can cause misunderstanding. Business writers should choose words whose connotations are positive or neutral and fit the reader.

Kathmandu Road, Lalitpur 15 October 2026

The Manager Himalaya Electricals Pvt. Ltd. New Road, Kathmandu

Dear Sir/Madam,

Subject: Complaint about a defective ceiling fan (Invoice No. 4582)

On 2 October 2026 I bought a 48-inch "Sunrise" ceiling fan (Model SR-48) from your showroom for Rs 3,850, as shown on the enclosed invoice number 4582. The fan carries a two-year warranty.

Within a week of installation by a qualified electrician, the following faults appeared:

• the fan makes a loud grinding noise at all speeds;
• it wobbles badly at medium and high speed; and
• it stops running after about twenty minutes because the motor becomes very hot.

I believe these are manufacturing defects and not a wiring problem, as the electrician has confirmed. The fan is not safe to use and I have stopped using it.

I therefore request that you replace the fan with a new one of the same model, or refund Rs 3,850, within seven days of receiving this letter. I am ready to return the defective fan on request. If the matter is not resolved, I will have to approach the Consumer Protection authorities.

I have always found your firm reliable and trust you will settle the matter promptly.

Yours faithfully,

Ramesh Sharma Mobile: 98XXXXXXXX

Enclosures: copy of invoice, copy of warranty card

MEMORANDUM REPORT

To: The Principal From: Transport Committee (Coordinator, Sunita Rai) Date: 20 October 2026 Subject: College Transportation

1. Purpose This memo-report reviews the present college transport service and recommends improvements.

2. Background The college runs four buses carrying about 320 students from Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur. Students pay a monthly fee of Rs 1,200.

3. Findings

• Buses are overcrowded in the morning; some carry 60 students against 45 seats.
• Two buses are over ten years old and broke down five times in the last term.
• Routes are long, and the Bhaktapur bus arrives 20 to 30 minutes late.
• The monthly fee does not cover fuel and repair costs; the deficit is about Rs 40,000 a month.
• Female students have raised safety concerns about late evening trips.

4. Conclusions The present service is insufficient, unreliable and financially unsustainable.

5. Recommendations

1. Buy or hire two additional buses to cut overcrowding.
2. Replace the two oldest buses and service all vehicles monthly.
3. Redesign routes and fix pick-up times.
4. Raise the fee to Rs 1,500 per month, with concession for needy students.
5. Appoint a conductor and attendant on each bus for safety.

I request your approval so that the changes can start from the next term.

A report is an objective, planned presentation of facts and findings for a specific purpose and reader. Good reports follow certain basic principles (tenets).

1. Clear purpose. The writer must know exactly what the report is meant to achieve and state the problem or objective clearly.

2. Accuracy. All facts, figures and quotations must be correct and verified. Errors destroy credibility.

3. Objectivity. Facts are presented without personal bias, and opinions are clearly separated from facts. Conclusions follow from the evidence.

4. Completeness. The report gives all information the reader needs for a decision, no more and no less.

5. Conciseness. Use short sentences and precise words; omit irrelevant detail while remaining complete.

6. Clarity and simplicity. Use plain language and avoid jargon, with tables, graphs and headings to make data easy to follow.

7. Reader orientation (you-attitude). Language, length and technicality suit the reader's knowledge and needs.

8. Logical organization. Material is arranged systematically (introduction, body, conclusion, recommendation) with headings and numbering.

9. Coherence and correct form. The tone is formal, grammar and spelling correct, and format conventional.

10. Timeliness. The report is submitted when the information is still useful.

Perception and Reality

Reality is everything that actually exists, whether or not anyone notices it. Perception is the process by which we select, organize and interpret information received through our senses. The two are not the same: we never experience reality directly, only through the filter of our senses, experience and beliefs.

Reality is larger than perception. The world is infinitely complex. Our senses are limited: we cannot see ultraviolet light or hear very high sounds, and we can attend to only a small part of what is around us. Anything we say about reality is therefore a selection.

Perception is a filter. What we perceive depends on our past experience, education, culture, values, needs, mood and expectations. Two people can see the same event and describe it differently; a manager and a worker looking at the same wage policy see different things. Optical illusions and the story of the blind men and the elephant show how partial perception can be.

Perception creates "reality" for the person. People act on what they believe to be true, not on what is true. A customer who thinks a firm is unreliable will avoid it, even if the firm is excellent. Prejudice, stereotypes and first impressions distort perception further.

Implications for communication. Because each person has a different map of reality, misunderstandings are common. A communicator should:

• recognise that his or her view is partial;
• avoid jumping to conclusions and distinguish facts from inferences;
• seek the other person's viewpoint and ask questions;
• use specific, verifiable language; and
• check understanding through feedback.

In conclusion, perception is our picture of reality, never the reality itself. Awareness of this gap makes us more tolerant, more careful in judging, and more effective communicators.

A job interview decides whether a candidate is selected, so careful preparation is essential. The main preparations are as follows.

1. Research the organization. Learn its history, products, size, culture, recent news and the post advertised, so you can answer and ask intelligent questions.

2. Analyse the job. Study the job description and requirements, and match your skills, qualifications and experience to them.

3. Know yourself. Identify your strengths, weaknesses, achievements, career goals and reasons for applying. Be ready with honest, positive examples.

4. Anticipate questions and rehearse. Prepare answers to common questions ("Tell us about yourself", "Why should we hire you?", salary expectation) and practise with a friend or in a mock interview. Prepare questions to ask the interviewers.

5. Prepare documents. Arrange copies of the CV, certificates, citizenship, photographs, experience letters and the call letter in a neat file.

6. Plan the logistics. Confirm the time and place, check the route and plan to arrive 10 to 15 minutes early.

7. Dress and grooming. Wear clean, formal, comfortable clothes and be well groomed.

8. Prepare mentally and physically. Sleep well, stay calm, and think positively.

9. Behaviour in the interview. Greet politely, sit upright, keep eye contact, listen carefully, answer briefly and honestly, and thank the panel at the end.

Communication is easier to understand and improve once certain basic truths about it are accepted.

1. Communication is a process, not an event. It is continuous: sender, message, channel, receiver and feedback all interact.

2. Communication is imperfect. Perfect transfer of meaning is impossible because of differences in knowledge, experience, language and perception, and because of noise. The aim is to reduce misunderstanding, not to remove it.

3. Meanings are in people, not in words. Words only stimulate meaning that listeners already hold; each person interprets according to experience.

4. Reality is complex and we see only part of it. Everyone views the world through a filter of senses, beliefs and attitudes, so people have different viewpoints.

5. Communication is not a natural skill. Though speech comes naturally, effective communication must be learned and practised.

6. Language is limited. Words are symbols, not the things they stand for; they are static while the world changes (time-binding problem), and they abstract and generalise.

7. Communication is two-way. The receiver is as important as the sender, and feedback is essential to check understanding.

8. Everything communicates. Tone, gestures, appearance and even silence send messages. It is impossible not to communicate.

9. Communication is irreversible and inevitable in organizations. Once said, a message cannot be taken back, and no organization can function without it.

Conclusion: accepting these truths makes us humble, careful and attentive to the receiver, and so better communicators.

The statement means that the world contains more details, relationships and changes than any person can observe, understand or describe. Our knowledge is therefore always partial.

Why reality is infinitely complex

• Endless detail. Even a simple object such as a pen can be described by its material, shape, colour, weight, chemical composition, history, price, use and so on, without ever finishing.
• Constant change. Nothing stays the same: people, markets, prices and technology change every moment, so a description is outdated as soon as it is given.
• Limited senses and mind. We see only part of the light spectrum, hear a limited range and can pay attention to only a few things at once.
• Language is limited. Words are finite while reality is not, so every statement leaves things out.

Illustrations

1. The blind men and the elephant: each touched one part and claimed the elephant was like a rope, wall or pillar. Each was right about a part but wrong about the whole.
2. A company's sales fall. The manager blames competition, the salesperson blames price, the accountant blames credit policy. All causes may play a part; no single explanation captures the whole.
3. A road accident described differently by witnesses.

Consequences for communication

• Statements are always selections, so avoid claims like "always" or "never" and use "to me", "so far".
• Do not confuse a description with the thing itself.
• Recognise that others may know different parts, so listen and ask questions.
• Be ready to update opinions with new information.

A viewpoint is the position or angle from which a person looks at things; it is shaped by background, experience, education, culture, beliefs, needs and emotions. Because each person's viewpoint differs, viewpoints play a central role in communication.

1. They determine what we notice and how we interpret. The sender encodes the message from his or her viewpoint and the receiver decodes it from another, so the intended meaning and the received meaning may differ.

2. They are a source of misunderstanding. Management and labour, buyer and seller, or young and old can read the same message differently. Meanings "exist in people".

3. They affect attitude and response. A person who is prejudiced against the sender tends to reject the message; a person who agrees accepts it easily.

4. They influence choice of words, tone and content. A writer who understands the reader's viewpoint can use the you-attitude and present benefits that matter to that reader.

5. They help persuasion and negotiation. Understanding the other side's viewpoint allows common ground and compromise to be found, and conflict reduced.

6. They support empathy and feedback. Considering the viewpoint of others improves listening and builds trust.

How to use them well: recognise your own viewpoint as only one; ask questions; put yourself in the receiver's place; avoid fixed judgement and two-valued thinking; and adapt the message to the receiver.

Language is the system of symbols, spoken and written, through which people share thoughts. It is what separates humans from other animals and has been the foundation of progress.

1. Sharing of knowledge. Through speech and writing, people exchange ideas and experience, so each person does not have to rediscover everything.

2. Time-binding. Humans can pass knowledge from one generation to the next through language, books and records. Each generation starts where the last ended, and knowledge grows cumulatively. This is the unique human ability called time-binding.

3. Cooperation and organization. Language lets people plan, coordinate and divide work, forming families, communities, businesses and states.

4. Thinking and abstraction. Words let us think about things not present, form concepts, reason and solve problems. Science, mathematics and philosophy depend on language.

5. Culture and social order. Customs, religion, laws, literature and values are preserved and passed on through language.

6. Trade and commerce. Contracts, orders, advertising and negotiation depend on language, supporting economic growth.

7. Education and research. Teaching, learning and recording discoveries are all done through language.

Limits. Language is imperfect: words are symbols that can be vague, have different meanings and lag behind changes, so it must be used carefully.

In short, without language there would be no accumulated knowledge, no civilization and no progress.

Basic steps in preparing a report

1. Define the problem and purpose. State clearly what the report is about, why it is needed and what it should achieve.

2. Analyse the reader (audience). Find out who will read it, their knowledge and what decisions they need to make.

3. Determine the scope and plan. Decide what is to be covered, the time, budget and sources needed.

4. Collect data. Gather facts by observation, interviews, questionnaires, surveys, records and published sources (primary and secondary data).

5. Organize and analyse the data. Sort, tabulate, classify and interpret the information, using tables and charts where useful.

6. Draw conclusions and make recommendations. Conclusions follow logically from the findings; recommendations state what should be done.

7. Prepare an outline. Arrange headings and sub-headings in logical order.

8. Write the first draft. Write the introduction, body and conclusion in clear, objective language.

9. Revise and edit. Check content, accuracy, organization, style, grammar and format.

10. Prepare the final report and submit it with title page, contents, summary and appendices, on time.

OR: Guidelines for the interviewee and the interviewer

Interviewee

• Research the organization and job; prepare answers and questions.
• Bring documents; dress formally; arrive early.
• Greet politely, sit properly, keep eye contact.
• Listen carefully; answer honestly, concisely and positively; avoid criticising past employers.
• Show enthusiasm and thank the panel.

Interviewer

• Plan the interview, review the applicant's file and prepare questions in advance.
• Arrange a quiet, comfortable setting without interruption.
• Put the candidate at ease at the start.
• Ask clear, relevant, open-ended questions; avoid discriminatory or personal questions.
• Listen more than talk; take notes; be fair and unbiased.
• Give the candidate a chance to ask questions, explain the next steps and close courteously.

Job application with resume

Tinkune, Kathmandu 20 October 2026

The Personnel Manager Everest Trading Pvt. Ltd. Putalisadak, Kathmandu

Dear Sir/Madam,

Subject: Application for the post of Accounts Assistant

With reference to your advertisement in The Kathmandu Post of 15 October 2026, I wish to apply for the post of Accounts Assistant. I am a BIM graduate with one year of experience in accounting, and I believe my skills match your requirements.

At ABC Traders I maintained ledgers, prepared monthly statements and used Tally for accounts. I am accurate, hard-working and can work under pressure. My resume is given below, and I would welcome an interview.

Yours faithfully, Anita Gurung

RESUME

Name: Anita Gurung Address: Tinkune, Kathmandu | Phone: 98XXXXXXXX | Email: anita@example.com

Objective: To work in accounting where I can apply my skills and grow professionally.

Education

• BIM, Tribhuvan University, 2025, First Division
• Higher Secondary (Management), 2021, Second Division
• SLC, 2019, First Division

Experience: Accounts Assistant, ABC Traders, Kathmandu (2025 to present)

Skills: Tally, MS Excel, MS Word, communication, teamwork

References: Available on request

OR

MEMORANDUM

To: All Faculty and Staff From: The Principal Date: 20 October 2026 Subject: Organizing the college library

The library should be reorganized to serve students better. The following actions are to be taken:

1. Arrange books subject-wise using a standard classification, with labelled shelves.
2. Prepare a computerised catalogue of all books and journals.
3. Keep the library open from 7 a.m. to 5 p.m. on working days.
4. Form a library committee led by the head librarian to recommend new purchases.
5. Set rules for borrowing, return dates and fines.

Please send suggestions to my office by 30 October.

(a) Introduction section of report writing

The introduction opens the body of the report and prepares the reader. It normally states the background of the problem, the purpose or objectives, the scope and limitations, the sources and methods of data collection, and sometimes the plan of the report. It should be brief and clear so that the reader knows what the report is about and why it was written.

(b) Kinesics

Kinesics is the study of body movements as communication: facial expression, eye contact, gestures, posture, head movements and touch. A smile shows friendliness, crossed arms may show defensiveness, and a firm handshake shows confidence. Body language supports, repeats or contradicts words, and it varies from culture to culture, so it should be used and interpreted carefully.

(c) Rubber stamp expressions

These are overused, stale phrases that appear automatically in business letters, e.g. "Enclosed please find", "Thanking you in anticipation", "Please be advised that", "Kindly revert back". They sound mechanical, waste words and show lack of thought. They should be replaced by fresh, natural expressions such as "I enclose" or "Thank you".

(d) Group discussions

A group discussion is an organised conversation among several people to examine a topic, solve a problem or reach a decision. It is led by a moderator and members share views in turn. It is used in selection tests and in meetings. Good participants listen, speak clearly and briefly, support points with facts, respect others, and do not dominate. Advantages include varied ideas and shared decisions; disadvantages are the time taken and the chance of conflict.

Meaning of communication

Communication is the process of exchanging information, ideas, feelings or instructions between two or more persons so that the message is understood. It involves a sender, a message, a channel, a receiver and feedback. The word comes from the Latin communis, meaning "common": communication creates a common understanding.

"If you cannot communicate, the organization cannot function"

An organization is people working together towards common goals. This cooperation is impossible without communication, for the following reasons.

1. Goals must be shared. People cannot work towards objectives they do not know. Plans, policies and goals have to be communicated to everyone.
2. Coordination. Departments and individuals need to exchange information to avoid duplication and conflict.
3. Instruction and control. Managers give orders and then check performance through reports and feedback.
4. Decision making. Managers decide on the basis of information gathered from inside and outside.
5. Motivation and morale. Recognition, participation and open discussion keep employees committed.
6. Customer and external relations. Sales, purchasing, public relations, and dealings with government and banks all depend on communication.
7. Learning and change. Training and introducing change need clear explanation.

If communication breaks down, orders are misunderstood, work is delayed, errors multiply, morale falls and customers are lost, and the organization stops operating as a unit. Hence communication is the lifeblood of every organization.

Communication is imperfect because the meaning in the sender's mind is never transferred exactly to the receiver's mind. The main reasons are as follows.

1. Meanings are in people, not words. Words are symbols; each person attaches meaning from his or her own experience, so the same word means different things to different people.
2. Reality is complex and we see only part of it. Each person has a limited and different viewpoint, so messages are partial.
3. Language is limited. Words are finite, vague, abstract and tied to the past, while reality is rich and changing.
4. Perceptual filters. Beliefs, attitudes, prejudices, emotions and expectations distort what is sent and what is received.
5. Noise. Physical noise, distractions and technical faults interfere with the message.
6. Encoding and decoding errors. The sender may choose the wrong words or medium, and the receiver may misread them.
7. Differences in knowledge, culture and status between sender and receiver.
8. Lack of feedback or poor listening.
9. Organizational barriers such as filtering, long chains, and overload.

Since these factors can never be removed completely, communication can only be improved, never made perfect. We can reduce the gap by using clear language, checking understanding, listening and encouraging feedback.

A viewpoint is a person's way of looking at things. It is formed in five main ways.

1. Through personal experience. What we ourselves have seen, done and felt shapes our views. A customer cheated once may distrust all sellers.

2. Through the influence of family and culture. Parents, relatives, community, religion and tradition give us our early values and beliefs, which we often accept without question.

3. Through education and training. Schools, books and professional training give knowledge and a particular way of analysing problems; an accountant and a marketer see a business differently.

4. Through the influence of others (peers, media, authority). Friends, colleagues, leaders, newspapers, television and the internet influence what we think, and group pressure leads us to conform.

5. Through needs, emotions and interests. Hunger, fear, hope, status and self-interest affect what we notice and believe. A worker and an employer view a wage rise differently because their interests differ.

These sources work together. Since viewpoints are formed by such varied factors, no two people have exactly the same one, which is why communicators must try to understand the viewpoint of others.

Baneshwor, Kathmandu 20 October 2026

The Human Resource Manager Himal Bank Ltd. Kamaladi, Kathmandu

Dear Sir/Madam,

Subject: Application for the post of Assistant Officer (Marketing)

I wish to apply for the post of Assistant Officer (Marketing) advertised in Gorkhapatra on 14 October 2026. I have completed the BIM degree from Tribhuvan University and have strong communication, computer and interpersonal skills. During my internship at XYZ Company I helped conduct a customer survey and prepare promotional material.

I am confident that I can contribute to your bank, and I would be grateful for an opportunity to meet you. My resume is given below.

Yours faithfully, Suman Thapa

RESUME

Name: Suman Thapa Address: Baneshwor, Kathmandu Phone: 98XXXXXXXX | Email: suman@example.com Date of birth: 12 March 2003 | Nationality: Nepali

Objective: To work in a progressive organization in marketing and grow with it.

Academic qualification

• BIM, Tribhuvan University, 2026, First Division
• +2 Management, 2022, First Division
• SEE, 2020, A grade

Experience: Intern, XYZ Company, 2025 (3 months)

Skills: MS Office, social media marketing, public speaking, teamwork

Interests: Reading, volunteering, football

References: Available on request

MEMORANDUM

To: All Heads of BIM Colleges From: Coordinator, BIM Programme Committee Date: 20 October 2026 Subject: Holding a seminar of BIM colleges

I propose that a one-day seminar of all BIM colleges be held to share experience and improve the quality of the programme.

Purpose

• To discuss curriculum, teaching methods and examination issues.
• To exchange ideas about internships and links with industry.
• To build cooperation among colleges.

Proposed details

• Date: 28 Kartik 2083 (Friday)
• Time: 10 a.m. to 4 p.m.
• Venue: Hall of the host college, Kathmandu
• Participants: The principal, two teachers and four students from each college
• Estimated cost: Rs 60,000, shared equally among participating colleges

Action requested Please confirm your participation, nominate your representatives, and suggest topics by 30 October. A detailed programme will then be circulated.

Your support will make the seminar a success.

Guidelines for report writing

1. Know the purpose. Define clearly what the report is for and what problem it deals with.

2. Know the reader. Choose content, length, vocabulary and level of detail to suit the reader's knowledge and needs.

3. Collect reliable data. Use accurate, up-to-date facts from observation, surveys, interviews and records, and record the sources.

4. Plan and outline. Arrange the material logically with headings and sub-headings before writing.

5. Be objective. Present facts without personal bias; separate fact from opinion.

6. Be accurate and complete. Check every figure and quotation, and include all essential information.

7. Be concise and clear. Use short sentences and simple words; avoid jargon and padding.

8. Use a suitable structure. Typically: title page, contents, summary, introduction, body (findings), conclusions, recommendations, appendices and bibliography.

9. Use visual aids. Tables, charts and graphs make data easy to grasp, but they must be labelled and explained.

10. Use a formal tone and correct language. Avoid slang and emotion; check grammar and spelling.

11. Draw logical conclusions and practical recommendations that follow from the evidence.

12. Revise, proofread and present neatly, and submit on time.

(a) Coherence in the letter

Coherence means that the parts of a letter hang together logically, so the reader moves smoothly from one idea to the next. It is achieved by arranging points in a clear order (for example, opening, details, closing), keeping one main idea in each paragraph, using transitional words such as "therefore", "however" and "in addition", repeating key words, and keeping a consistent tone and viewpoint. A coherent letter is easy to follow and persuasive.

(c) The Blocked Mind

The blocked mind is a state in which a person refuses to consider new information or other viewpoints because of fixed beliefs, prejudice, fear or emotion. Such a person hears only what agrees with his or her ideas, so communication fails. It can be reduced by recognising one's own biases, listening openly, asking questions, separating facts from judgements, avoiding either/or thinking and being willing to change one's mind when evidence demands.

In business communication, "the real world" means reality as it actually is: everything that exists and happens, whether or not anyone perceives or describes it, such as the real market, real customers, real costs and events. It is infinitely complex and always larger than what any person knows. What we hold in our minds is only a partial picture (a map) of it, formed through our senses, experience and beliefs. A good communicator remembers the map is not the territory, and checks statements against facts.

The filter is the set of personal factors through which each person receives and interprets reality, so that we perceive only part of it. It includes:

• our senses and their limits (sight, hearing, etc.);
• past experience and memory;
• beliefs, values and attitudes;
• education and training;
• culture, family and social background;
• needs, interests and emotions;
• expectations, assumptions and prejudices; and
• language and vocabulary.

Because these differ from person to person, two people can see the same event differently.

Beliefs are ideas or opinions that a person accepts as true, often without full proof. They are formed through experience, upbringing, culture, education and the influence of others, and they act as part of the filter that shapes how we see reality and act.

Examples

• "Honesty is the best policy": a businessperson with this belief will avoid false advertising.
• "Foreign goods are better than local ones": a customer with this belief will ignore local products.
• "Women cannot manage heavy work": a belief that may unfairly influence hiring.

Beliefs can be helpful or harmful. Communicators should examine their beliefs and be willing to revise them when facts show otherwise.

Language is the system of spoken and written symbols used to share thoughts and information. It lets people exchange ideas, think abstractly, coordinate work and record experience.

Time-binding is the human ability, through language, to pass accumulated knowledge from one generation to the next, so that each generation begins where the previous one ended instead of starting from nothing. Animals learn mostly within one lifetime, but humans store knowledge in speech, books and records, so knowledge, science and technology grow over time. In business, manuals, records, training and reports are examples of time-binding.

This means that words do not carry meaning in themselves; they are only symbols. The meaning of a word is the idea that a person attaches to it, based on that person's experience, culture, education and feelings. Therefore the speaker's meaning and the listener's meaning may differ.

For example, the word "soon" may mean ten minutes to one person and a week to another, and "cheap" may be praise to a buyer but an insult to a maker. Hence communicators should not assume that the other person understands as they do. They should use specific words, consider the receiver's background and ask for feedback.

(a) "Crispy fried fish sold here"

Denotation: Fish that has been fried until crisp is on sale at this place.

Connotation: Appealing, fresh, tasty and appetising food; a pleasant, clean and attractive shop. The words "crispy" and "fried" create positive feelings and make the reader want to buy.

(b) "Dead fish boiled in oil sold here"

Denotation: It also means that fish that has been cooked in oil is on sale; the facts are essentially the same as in (a).

Connotation: Unpleasant and unappetising; "dead" suggests stale or rotten fish, and "boiled in oil" suggests something crude and greasy. It would put customers off.

The two sentences have the same denotation but quite different connotations, showing why word choice matters in business messages.

A camouflaged verb is a verb that has been turned into a noun (usually ending in -tion, -ment, -ance, -al) and hidden behind a weak verb such as "make", "give", "take" or "have". This makes writing wordy and dull. The better style is to use the verb directly.

Examples

• "We made a decision to close the branch" should be "We decided to close the branch".
• "Please give consideration to my request" should be "Please consider my request".
• "The committee held a discussion of the plan" should be "The committee discussed the plan".

The old language of business is the stiff, formal, wordy and out-of-date style once used in letters and reports. It is full of rubber-stamp expressions and archaic words, such as "Enclosed please find", "We beg to acknowledge receipt of your letter", "Kindly revert back at the earliest", "Thanking you in anticipation", "the undersigned" and "herewith". It sounds impersonal and mechanical and wastes words. Modern business writing uses a natural, clear, courteous and concise style, such as "I enclose" and "Thank you for your letter".

The main types of presentation are:

1. Impromptu (extemporaneous) presentation: given on the spot with no preparation.
2. Memorised presentation: written beforehand and learned by heart.
3. Manuscript presentation: read from a full written text.
4. Presentation from notes or outline: prepared and rehearsed, delivered with brief notes or cue cards.
5. Visual-aided or multimedia presentation: supported by slides, charts, videos or demonstrations.

Which is best? A presentation delivered from notes or an outline, supported by visual aids, is generally the best. It is prepared and organized, yet natural and flexible, allows eye contact with the audience and adaptation to their reaction, and avoids the stiffness of reading a script or the risk of forgetting a memorised text.

Civilization means an advanced stage of social, cultural and economic development. Communication has been the means by which humans reached and maintain it.

1. Development of language and writing. Speech allowed people to share ideas and cooperate, and writing allowed knowledge to be recorded and carried over time and distance, giving rise to history, law and literature.

2. Accumulation of knowledge. Through communication each generation passes knowledge to the next (time-binding), so science, technology and arts grow cumulatively.

3. Social organization. Communication enables people to form families, communities and states, make rules and laws, and run governments.

4. Economic progress. Trade, markets, banking and industry depend on communication of prices, orders and contracts. Printing, telegraph, telephone, radio, television and the internet have widened markets.

5. Education and culture. Schools, books, media, religion, arts and traditions pass values and skills and give a society its identity.

6. Understanding and cooperation. Dialogue resolves disputes without violence, promotes tolerance and builds relations among communities and nations.

7. Democracy and public opinion. Free expression and the press let citizens be informed, take part in decisions and hold rulers accountable.

8. Scientific and technological advance. Sharing research and discoveries speeds up invention.

Hence a civilized society is built on, and depends on, effective communication.

Communication is a continuous, two-way process in which a message is exchanged between a sender and a receiver. The model can be drawn as:

Sender --> Encoding --> Message --> Channel --> Decoding --> Receiver
  ^                                                              |
  |------------------------ Feedback ----------------------------|
          (Noise may interfere at every stage)

Components

1. Sender (source). The person who has an idea or information and wants to share it. The clarity of the message depends on the sender's skill, knowledge and attitude.
2. Encoding. The sender converts the idea into words, symbols, gestures or pictures that the receiver can understand.
3. Message. The actual content sent, spoken, written or non-verbal.
4. Channel (medium). The route used to carry the message: face-to-face talk, telephone, letter, e-mail, memo, report, video.
5. Receiver. The person for whom the message is meant.
6. Decoding. The receiver interprets the symbols to obtain meaning, using his or her own experience and viewpoint, so the meaning may differ from the intended meaning.
7. Feedback. The receiver's response (a reply, question, action or even a nod) which tells the sender whether the message was understood. It makes the process two-way and cyclic.
8. Noise. Anything that distorts or interrupts the message at any stage: physical noise, language problems, prejudice, inattention, technical faults.

The communication is effective when the meaning received is the same as the meaning intended.

A viewpoint is the position or angle from which a person looks at an event, person or idea. It decides what the person notices, how it is interpreted and how he or she responds.

Ways in which viewpoints are formed

1. Personal experience: direct experiences, successes and failures.
2. Family and culture: parents, community, religion and tradition.
3. Education and training: knowledge and professional discipline.
4. Influence of others: friends, peers, leaders, media and group pressure.
5. Needs, emotions and interests: what we want, fear or gain from.

Aspects that contribute to the formation of viewpoints

• Age and gender: young and old, men and women may see things differently.
• Occupation and position: workers, managers and owners view the same policy differently.
• Social, economic and educational background: income, class and schooling.
• Values, beliefs and attitudes: what a person thinks is right or important.
• Physical condition and mood: health, tiredness, stress and emotion at the time.
• Language and cultural conditioning.
• Past knowledge and expectations: we tend to see what we expect to see.

Since all these factors differ from person to person, no two viewpoints are identical. A good communicator therefore tries to understand the receiver's viewpoint and adapts the message accordingly.

Chabahil, Kathmandu 20 October 2026

The Human Resource Manager TechNepal Solutions Pvt. Ltd. Naxal, Kathmandu

Dear Sir/Madam,

Subject: Application for the post of IT Professional

I wish to apply for the post of IT Professional advertised in Kantipur on 15 October 2026. I hold a BIM degree with an IT specialisation and have two years of experience in software support and network administration. I believe I have the technical skills and commitment that you require, and I am eager to contribute to your company.

My resume is given below. I would be pleased to attend an interview at your convenience.

Yours faithfully, Prabin Karki

RESUME

Name: Prabin Karki Address: Chabahil, Kathmandu Phone: 98XXXXXXXX | Email: prabin@example.com

Career objective: To work as an IT professional in a dynamic organization, using my technical and problem-solving skills.

Education

• BIM, Tribhuvan University, 2024, First Division
• +2 (Science), 2020, Second Division
• SLC, 2018, First Division

Experience

• IT Support Officer, ABC Pvt. Ltd., Kathmandu (2024 to present): troubleshooting, server and LAN maintenance, database backup.
• Intern, XYZ Software, 2023: web development.

Technical skills: Java, Python, SQL, HTML/CSS, MySQL, Windows and Linux administration, networking

Personal details: Date of birth 5 June 2000; Nepali; languages Nepali and English.

References: Available on request

MEMORANDUM

To: Ms. Rita Shrestha, Secretary From: Managing Director Date: 20 October 2026 Subject: Request for information on the stagnant sales

Our sales have not increased over the last three quarters despite our advertising and sales efforts. I need to understand the reasons so that corrective action can be taken.

Please collect and send me the following by Friday, 24 October:

1. Month-wise sales figures by product and region for the last two years.
2. Reports from the sales representatives about customer complaints and market conditions.
3. Information about competitors' prices, new products and promotions.
4. Details of our own price changes, discounts and stock shortages.
5. Number of new and lost customers during the period.

Please also arrange a meeting of the sales managers for Monday morning. Thank you for your help.

The Introduction is the opening chapter of a report. It tells the reader what the report is about, why it was written and how it is organised, so that the later chapters can be read with a clear background. A good Introduction usually includes the following.

1. Authorisation: who asked for the report, when, and under what instructions (for example, a letter of authorisation from the Campus Chief or the Managing Director).
2. Statement of the problem: the exact problem or issue that the report investigates, written clearly and briefly.
3. Purpose or objectives: what the report aims to find out or achieve, and what decision it will help to make.
4. Scope: the area, period, people or topics covered, so the reader knows what is included.
5. Limitations: factors that restricted the study, such as shortage of time, money, data or access.
6. Background or history: the brief context needed to understand the problem, including earlier events and related work.
7. Hypothesis (if any): the tentative explanation or assumption that the study sets out to test.
8. Sources and methods of data collection: primary sources (questionnaire, interview, observation) and secondary sources (books, records, journals), and the sampling and analysis methods used.
9. Definitions of terms: technical words or terms used in a special sense.
10. Preview of the report: a short outline of how the remaining chapters are arranged.

The Introduction should be short, precise and written in a neutral tone, so that the reader quickly understands the report's aim, scope and plan.

(a) Guidelines for the interviewer

• Prepare before the interview: study the job, the applicant's résumé and the questions to be asked.
• Arrange a quiet, comfortable place and keep to the time fixed.
• Put the candidate at ease with a friendly greeting and easy opening questions.
• Ask clear, relevant, open-ended questions, one at a time, and avoid leading or discriminatory questions.
• Listen attentively and let the candidate do most of the talking; do not interrupt.
• Observe non-verbal behaviour, take brief notes and stay unbiased.
• Give the candidate a chance to ask questions, explain the next step, and close politely.

(b) Kinesics

Kinesics is the study of body movement as a means of communication. It covers facial expression, eye contact, gestures, posture, body shape, movement and touch. A smile shows friendliness, steady eye contact shows confidence and honesty, and a slouched posture may show boredom or lack of interest. Body language often supports, repeats or contradicts the spoken words, so a communicator should be aware of it and control it, remembering that its meaning varies between cultures.

Internal operation communication is the exchange of information within an organisation that is needed to carry out its day-to-day work, such as instructions, reports and records passing among employees and departments. Example: a production manager sending a memo to the workers about the daily production target.

Body shape and posture send messages without words. A person's build, grooming and the way he or she stands, sits or walks make an impression on others. An upright, relaxed posture suggests confidence and interest, while a slouched or stiff posture may suggest boredom, nervousness or lack of confidence. Since kinesics is the study of body movement as communication, shape and posture form a part of it.

"Up" is a relative direction, not a fixed one. It depends on where the speaker stands. For a person in Nepal, up is away from the centre of the earth at that spot, and for a person on the opposite side of the globe, up points in almost the opposite direction. So a word such as "up" has no single meaning for everyone; its meaning depends on the location and viewpoint of the speaker.

Knowledge in the mind is formed from our own experience, what we are told, and what we infer. Each of these may be incomplete or mistaken. If our perception was faulty, if the source was unreliable, or if we drew a wrong conclusion, the knowledge we store will be false. Knowledge that matches reality is true, so we should test what we "know" against facts before acting on it.

From the context, a glub is a small pet animal that is kept in a cage and has fleas, such as a pet rodent (a hamster or a similar creature). The clues are that George wanted flea powder for it and that its cage door was found open, so it had escaped.

"If customers pay promptly, they are placed on our preferred list."

(Alternatively: "A customer who pays promptly is placed on our preferred list.") The plural form or rewording removes the masculine pronoun he.

"Thank you for sending your report of May 1."

(Alternatively: "Your report of May 1 has reached us.") The sentence now begins with the reader and what the reader did, instead of with "we".

"I am enclosing a draft for Rs 30,000."

(Alternatively: "Here is a draft for Rs 30,000.") The old, stiff phrases "please find enclosed herewith" and "Rupees Thirty Thousand" are replaced by plain conversational words.

Reality is the world as it actually is, whether or not we perceive it. It is everything that exists outside and independent of our words and opinions, and it is far more complex than any description or perception of it.

The best type of presentation for public speaking is the extemporaneous (prepared but not memorised) method. The speaker prepares the content and an outline or key points in advance but delivers it in natural words, keeping eye contact with the audience. It sounds natural and flexible, unlike reading a manuscript or reciting from memory.

Communication is the process of exchanging information, ideas and feelings between people. Human beings live in groups, and no society, business or government can exist without it. That is why communication is vital to our existence in a civilized society.

1. It builds and holds society together. Through language, people share needs, customs, values and plans. Families, communities and nations are formed and kept united by continuous communication.

2. It passes on knowledge (time-binding). Language, writing and print allow each generation to pass knowledge, science and culture to the next. Civilisation advances because we need not rediscover everything again.

3. It makes cooperation and organised activity possible. Work is divided among many people, and their efforts are coordinated only through communication: instructions, reports, meetings, and so on. Businesses and offices would stop without it.

4. It supports trade and the economy. Buyers and sellers negotiate, advertise, place orders and settle payments through communication. Banks, markets and transport depend on a regular flow of messages.

5. It helps government and law. Laws, policies and public notices must be communicated to citizens, and citizens express opinions through voting, the press and petitions. This sustains democracy and the rule of law.

6. It helps in solving problems and making decisions. Accurate information gathered through communication enables managers and citizens to decide wisely, and conflicts are settled through discussion instead of violence.

7. It meets personal and social needs. Individuals express emotions, form friendships, learn, and develop their personality through communication.

Conclusion: Without communication there would be no education, trade, government or culture. Hence, a civilised society cannot exist without effective communication.

Reality means the world as it actually is, with all its objects, events and processes. It is infinitely complex because no object or event can be described completely, and no one can ever know everything about it.

1. Every object has endless characteristics. Take a simple object such as an apple. We can describe its colour, size, weight, taste, chemical composition, number of molecules, history of growth, and so on. However long we go on, something remains unsaid. Each of these characteristics can again be divided into finer details.

2. Reality is always changing. Things are not static, but are processes. The apple ripens and decays; a person changes every second. The description given today is out of date tomorrow.

3. Our senses and tools are limited. We perceive only a small part of reality. Our eyes and ears respond to a limited range, and different people notice different things, depending on interest, experience and background.

4. Language is limited. Words cannot cover everything. Language is built on similarities and abstracts a few features, leaving out the rest. So a word or statement is never the thing itself ("the word is not the thing").

5. Perception is selective. Out of the infinite details, we select a few, and our selection is influenced by our needs and viewpoints. Hence, two people see the same event differently.

Implication for communication: Since our knowledge of reality is partial, we should avoid thinking we know everything, should not jump to conclusions, and should use "etc." (the idea that there is more to say) and be open to different views. Realising the complexity of reality makes us more careful, tolerant and accurate communicators.

Definition: A viewpoint is the position or angle from which a person looks at things, formed by his or her opinions, attitudes and beliefs. It shapes how the person understands, evaluates and responds to events. Two persons may look at the same event and see it differently because their viewpoints differ.

Five ways in which viewpoints are formed

1. Personal experience: What we see, do and suffer directly shapes our views. A person who was cheated once may view all sellers with distrust.
2. Family and upbringing: The values, customs and habits taught by parents and relatives form our early opinions and attitudes.
3. Education and training: School, college and professional training provide knowledge and ways of thinking, so an engineer and an artist may see the same building differently.
4. Culture, religion and social group: The community, caste, religion, language and friends we belong to give us shared beliefs and standards.
5. Media and other people's reports: Newspapers, radio, television, the internet, books and the talk of others supply information and opinions that we often accept as our own.

Other influences include occupation, age, sex, economic position and physical condition. Understanding that viewpoints differ helps a communicator respect the receiver's position and adapt the message to it.

Malfunctions of communication

Malfunctions of communication are the faults or errors in our thinking and use of language that cause misunderstanding, conflict and wrong decisions, even though the people involved try to communicate. They arise from the way we use words and relate them to reality. Common ones are two-valued thinking, failure to discriminate, the blocked mind, fact-inference confusion and polarisation.

Two-valued thinking

Two-valued thinking (the "either-or" or black-and-white orientation) means seeing things as only two opposite extremes, such as good or bad, right or wrong, friend or enemy, success or failure, and ignoring the many degrees between them.

Example: "If you are not with us, you are against us." In reality, there are many positions between total support and total opposition. A student is not just "brilliant" or "stupid".

Effects: It oversimplifies reality, produces prejudice and rigid attitudes, blocks compromise and creates needless conflicts and poor decisions.

Solutions

1. Recognise the middle ground. Think in terms of degrees and range, not just two extremes.
2. Use qualifying words such as "sometimes", "to some extent", "usually", instead of "always" and "never".
3. Use a many-valued orientation: ask whether there are more than two choices or more than two sides to a question.
4. Use a scale of measurement, for example describing performance as a percentage or grade instead of "pass" or "fail".
5. Use "etc." and "index" and "date": remember that there is more to know and that things differ and change.
6. Be open-minded and willing to listen to other viewpoints before judging.

Sundhara, Kathmandu 15 June 2007

Mr. S.K. Bhatta Sales Manager Bajaj Showroom Tripureshwar, Kathmandu

Dear Mr. Bhatta:

Subject: Defects in my new Pulsar motorcycle

Two weeks ago, I bought a new Pulsar motorcycle from your showroom, and I am sorry to say that it is giving me trouble already. The details of the bike are:

• Model: Bajaj Pulsar 150 cc (about 13 horsepower)
• Colour: Black
• Bill No.: 2457
• Date of purchase: 1 June 2007
• Amount paid: Rs 1,85,000
• Engine and chassis numbers: as given in the bill

The following problems have appeared:

1. The horn does not work at all.
2. The engine makes strange knocking sounds, especially when it is started and when I accelerate.
3. The headlight flickers when I ride at night, and the bike is hard to start in the morning.

I use the motorcycle every day to travel to my office, and without a horn it is both unsafe and illegal to ride in the city traffic.

When I bought the bike, I was given a warranty for one year, which covers the repair or replacement of defective parts free of charge. I therefore ask you to have the bike inspected, repair the horn, the engine and the electrical fault without any charge, or replace the motorcycle if the defects cannot be corrected.

I can bring the bike to your workshop any day after 4 p.m. or on Saturday. Please call me at 9841-XXXXXX so that we can fix a time. I look forward to your reply by the end of this week, and I trust that you will put this right quickly, as I have been pleased with your service so far.

Sincerely,

Rajan Shrestha

Topic chosen: (c) College transportation

MEMORANDUM

To: The Co-ordinator, Bachelor of Business Studies Programme From: Sunita Karki, Class Representative, Second Semester Date: 20 June 2007 Subject: Improving the college transportation service

Many students of our class have asked me to bring the following problems with the college bus service to your attention.

Problems

1. The buses are overcrowded in the morning, and many students must stand or travel on the roof or the steps.
2. The buses are often late, so students miss the first period.
3. Several routes, including Bhaktapur and Kalanki, are not covered, so students on these routes have to depend on public vehicles.
4. There is no fixed timetable, and the evening service ends too early for students who stay for library work.

Suggestions

• Add at least two more buses during the peak morning hours.
• Publish a fixed timetable and route list on the notice board.
• Extend the evening service by one hour.
• Form a small committee of teachers and student representatives to monitor the service every month.

I request you to discuss these points at the next management meeting. I will be happy to meet you at your convenience to give more information, and I will be thankful for an early decision.

• Opinion: "I think this brand of mobile phone is better than that one."
• Attitude: a habitual feeling towards something, for example a favourable attitude towards hard work or a dislike of being late.
• Belief: a conviction accepted as true, often without proof, for example "honesty is the best policy" or "the sun is the centre of the solar system".

Meaning: Rubber stamp expressions are stale, overused phrases that business writers repeat automatically, like stamping the same mark on every letter. They are lifeless and show no thought for the reader.

Examples:

• "Enclosed herewith please find..."
• "Thanking you in anticipation"
• "As per your letter of the 5th inst."
• "Awaiting your early reply"
• "Hoping this finds you in the best of health"

They should be replaced by fresh, natural wording such as "I am enclosing..." and "Thank you for your letter of 5 May."

Failure to discriminate means treating different things as if they were the same because they have the same label, and so overlooking their differences. It is a malfunction of communication, because the speaker reacts to the word, not to the individual case.

Example: Someone who had a bad experience with one Nepali (or foreign) shopkeeper concludes that "all shopkeepers are cheats". Each shopkeeper is different, but they are all lumped under one word. Indexing (shopkeeper1, shopkeeper2...) helps to remember the differences.

A hypothesis in report writing is a tentative explanation or assumption about a problem, which the writer sets out to test through the collection and analysis of data. It may be accepted or rejected after the investigation. Example: "Poor transport service is the main reason for late attendance of students."

"Our union has supported this policy."

The suitable word is weary: "We are weary of reminding you about making the payment for the delivered goods."

Words such as fagged out and pooped are slang and unsuitable in a business letter, while exhausted and full of fatigue do not fit the pattern "of reminding".

"I am in search of a job."

The correct idiom is "in search of", not "in search for". (One may also say "I am searching for a job.")

"You will be happy to learn that you can buy at reduced prices this summer."

(Alternatively: "You can save money this summer with our reduced prices.") The sentence now focuses on the benefit to the reader instead of on our happiness.

Time-binding is the human ability to pass knowledge from one generation to the next through language, writing and records. Each generation can start from what earlier generations learned, so knowledge accumulates over time instead of being lost. Animals cannot do this to the same degree.

The communication process is the series of steps by which a message passes from a sender to a receiver and brings a response. A simple model has the following elements.

Diagram

 Sender --> Encoding --> Message / Channel --> Decoding --> Receiver
   ^                         |                                  |
   |                      NOISE (barrier)                       |
   |                                                            |
   +------------------------ Feedback <-------------------------+

Elements of the model

1. Sender (source): the person who has an idea or information to share and starts the communication.
2. Encoding: the sender puts the idea into symbols such as words, pictures or gestures, in a form the receiver will understand.
3. Message: the actual content that is sent, which may be spoken, written or non-verbal.
4. Channel (medium): the route or means by which the message travels, such as a letter, telephone, email, face-to-face talk or memo.
5. Receiver: the person for whom the message is meant.
6. Decoding: the receiver interprets the symbols and gives them meaning. The meaning will be right only if both share similar experience and language.
7. Feedback: the receiver's response to the sender, which shows whether the message was understood. It completes the cycle and makes communication two-way.
8. Noise (barriers): anything that disturbs or distorts the message at any stage, for example physical noise, wrong word choice, differences in viewpoint, poor listening, or emotions.

Working: The sender forms an idea, encodes it and sends it through a suitable channel. The receiver decodes it, forms an understanding and sends feedback. If there is noise, the message may be misunderstood, so the sender should check feedback and, if needed, repeat or clarify the message. The process is thus circular and continuous.

Language builds on the abstraction process: from the infinite details of reality, we select some features that are similar in many objects, leave out the differences and give the group a name. Each higher level uses fewer details and covers more things. In this way language is built upon the similarities of our perceptions, not the differences, and we can talk about many things with a few words.

Example 1: Fido (a dog)

The levels, from the lowest to the highest, are as follows.

1. Fido, the actual animal: the real dog, with its millions of characteristics, which we can never describe completely. This is the process level.
2. "Fido" (our perception and the name): we notice only some of Fido's features, such as size, colour, shape and bark, and give it a name.
3. "Dog": we drop the features that make Fido different from other dogs and keep the common ones: four legs, fur, barking.
4. "Animal": we drop more features, such as barking, keeping only what dogs share with cats, cows, etc.
5. "Living thing" or "asset" and higher: still fewer characteristics are retained.

At each step, detail is lost and the word covers more.

Example 2: The economy

"The economy" is a very high-level abstraction. It begins with the real events: a shopkeeper selling a kilo of rice to a customer, a farmer growing it, a worker earning wages. These are grouped into "trade", "agriculture" and "employment", which are grouped into "the market" and finally "the economy". The word hides all individual differences between thousands of different people and transactions. When someone says "the economy is bad", it is vague, since it may be good for some people and bad for others.

Conclusion: Abstracting is necessary, since without it we would need a separate word for every single thing. But the higher the level of abstraction, the more detail is lost, and the greater the chance of misunderstanding. A communicator should therefore come down the ladder with specific examples and facts when clarity is needed.

An interview is a planned conversation in which the interviewer questions the interviewee to obtain information and judge suitability, usually for a job. Both sides should follow some guidelines.

A. Guidelines for the interviewer

1. Prepare in advance: study the job requirements and the applicant's résumé, and prepare the questions.
2. Arrange a suitable setting: a quiet, private room with no interruptions, and a proper time schedule.
3. Start with a warm welcome and easy questions to put the candidate at ease.
4. Ask clear, relevant, open-ended questions, one at a time, and avoid leading questions or questions on private matters not connected with the job.
5. Listen carefully; let the candidate speak most of the time and do not interrupt.
6. Observe non-verbal behaviour and take short notes, but do not let this distract the candidate.
7. Be fair and unbiased, treating all candidates equally.
8. Give information about the job and the organisation, and invite the candidate's questions.
9. Close politely, telling the candidate when and how the result will be communicated.

B. Guidelines for the interviewee

1. Prepare: learn about the organisation and the job, and rehearse answers to likely questions.
2. Dress neatly and appropriately, and carry the necessary documents.
3. Arrive on time, preferably 10-15 minutes early.
4. Greet politely and behave confidently, with a firm handshake, a pleasant smile and good posture. Sit only when asked.
5. Listen to each question before answering, and answer clearly, honestly and briefly.
6. Maintain eye contact and avoid nervous habits.
7. Highlight strengths and give examples of achievements, but do not boast or criticise former employers.
8. Ask relevant questions about the job when invited.
9. Thank the interviewer at the end, and leave politely.

Baneshwor, Kathmandu 10 July 2008

Mr. Prithvi Bahadur Pandey Managing Director Nepal Investment Bank Putali Sadak, Kathmandu

Dear Mr. Pandey:

Subject: Application for the post of IT Professional

I am applying for the post of IT Professional in your bank, as advertised in The Kathmandu Post of 8 July 2008. With a degree in computer science and two years of experience in managing networks and banking software, I believe I can contribute to your bank's technology services.

I completed my Bachelor's degree in Computer Science and Information Technology from Tribhuvan University in 2005. Since then I have worked as an assistant system administrator at Himal Finance Company, where I maintain the servers and local network, support the core banking software, take daily data backups, and train the staff in the use of computer systems. In this work, I helped reduce system downtime by almost one third in one year.

I am skilled in database management (SQL), networking and web applications, and I am used to working under pressure and in a team. I would like to work in a bank like yours, which has a reputation for using modern technology.

My résumé is enclosed with this letter. I would welcome the chance to meet you for an interview at any time that suits you. You can reach me at 9841-XXXXXX.

Sincerely,

Binod Adhikari

Enclosure: Résumé

RÉSUMÉ

Binod Adhikari Baneshwor, Kathmandu | Phone: 9841-XXXXXX | Email: binod.adhikari@example.com

Career objective: To work as an IT Professional in a progressive bank, applying my technical skills to improve its services.

Education

• B.Sc. CSIT, Tribhuvan University, 2005, First Division
• Higher Secondary (Science), 2001, Second Division
• SLC, 1999, First Division

Experience

• Assistant System Administrator, Himal Finance Company, Kathmandu (2006 to present): manages servers, network and banking software; gives technical support.
• Intern, Computer Centre, Kathmandu (2005-2006): hardware repairs and user support.

Skills: SQL and database administration, networking (LAN/WAN), Java and web design, MS Office, troubleshooting.

Personal details: Date of birth: 5 April 1982; Nationality: Nepali; Languages: Nepali, English, Hindi.

References: Available on request.

Definition: Non-verbal communication is the sending and receiving of messages without using words, through body movements, voice qualities, use of space and time, appearance and other signals. It often shows true feelings more reliably than words.

Components

1. Kinesics (body language): body movements such as facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, posture, body shape and touch. A smile suggests warmth, and crossed arms may show defensiveness.
2. Paralanguage: the voice qualities that go with speech: tone, pitch, volume, rate, pauses and sounds like sighs. They show attitude and emotion; the same words can sound polite or rude.
3. Proxemics (space language): the distance people keep from each other, and the way offices and seats are arranged. Closeness shows friendship, and a large, separate office shows high status.
4. Chronemics (time language): how time is used. Punctuality shows respect, and delay or long waiting can signal low regard.
5. Appearance and object language: dress, grooming, jewellery, office furniture, and neatness of documents, which make a first impression.
6. Colour and silence, which also carry meaning (for example white for mourning in Nepal, a pause to show disagreement).

Non-verbal signals can repeat, support, replace or contradict what is said. Their meaning varies with culture, so they need careful interpretation.

MEMORANDUM

To: The Campus Chief From: Ramesh Thapa, Class Representative, BBS Second Semester Date: 18 July 2008 Subject: Improving college transportation

At the request of my classmates, I would like to bring the following matters regarding the college transportation to your attention.

Problems

1. The college buses are overcrowded in the morning, and some students have to stand for the whole journey.
2. Buses often arrive late, so that students miss the first class.
3. A number of areas, such as Kirtipur and Bhaktapur, have no bus service.
4. The last bus leaves right after the classes, so students who need to use the library or join extra activities find it difficult to return home.

Suggestions

• Add at least two buses for the busiest routes.
• Fix and publish the timetable and routes on the notice board.
• Run one extra bus in the late afternoon.
• Set up a committee of students and staff to review the service every month.

I hope you will consider these suggestions and kindly discuss them at the next meeting of the management. I will be glad to provide more details if required.

(a) Introduction of a report

The Introduction is the first chapter of the body of a report. It prepares the reader for what follows by stating who authorised the report (authorisation), the problem being studied, the purpose or objectives, the scope and limitations, the background, any hypothesis, the sources and methods used to gather data, the definitions of special terms, and a preview of how the remaining chapters are arranged. It should be brief, clear and neutral.

(b) Making formal speeches

• Method of presentation: The best method is extemporaneous speaking, in which the speaker prepares the points and an outline in advance but delivers them in natural words. Reading from a manuscript sounds dull, and memorising a speech sounds artificial.
• Personal aspects: The speaker should be neatly dressed, confident, enthusiastic and sincere. Voice should be clear, with proper volume, pace and pauses. The speaker should know the audience and the topic.
• Bodily actions: Stand straight, make steady eye contact with the audience, use natural gestures and facial expressions, move purposefully, and avoid nervous habits such as fidgeting.
• Structure and ending: Start with an interesting opening, develop the points in order, use examples, and close with a brief summary and thanks.

Communication is the process of exchanging information, ideas, opinions and feelings between two or more people so that the message is shared and understood by the receiver in the way the sender intended.

The five types of malfunctions of communication are:

1. Blocked mind (failure to listen to or accept new ideas)
2. Failure to discriminate (treating different things as the same)
3. Failure to differentiate fact from inference / confusing levels of abstraction (the confusion between words and things, e.g. map and territory)
4. Two-valued (either-or) thinking
5. Fixed or outdated viewpoints / failure to update (indexing and dating), so that a person acts on old or stereotyped ideas

The word "cat" shows that one word can carry many meanings, depending on the person and context. Four different meanings are:

1. A small domestic animal kept as a pet that catches mice (denotative meaning).
2. A wild member of the cat family, such as a lion, tiger or leopard.
3. A spiteful or malicious woman ("She is a real cat") (slang/connotative).
4. A "cool" or fashionable person, especially a jazz musician ("a cool cat"), or a whip with nine tails ("cat-o'-nine-tails").

Non-sexist version: "Any worker who ignores this rule will have their salary reduced."

Other acceptable forms are "Workers who ignore this rule will have their salaries reduced" or "Any worker who ignores this rule will have a salary reduction." The masculine pronoun "his" wrongly implies that all workers are men, so it is replaced by a plural or neutral form.

Corrected sentence: "Nepali students are superior to foreign students."

The adjective "superior" takes the preposition "to", not "than". ("Than" is used only with comparatives such as "better than" or "more intelligent than".)

Denotative meaning is the direct, literal, dictionary meaning of a word, free from personal feelings or associations. It is the meaning that most people agree on.

Example: The word "home" denotatively means a place where a person lives. By contrast, the connotative meaning (warmth, family, comfort) varies from person to person.

The cluttered phrase is "about twenty thousand rupees"; the word "about" and the long wording can be replaced by a precise, shorter form.

Revised sentence: "This new TV costs Rs 20,000" (or "approximately Rs 20,000" if the figure is really an estimate).

Using the figure instead of spelling it out, and removing vague filler, makes the sentence concise.

The public relations goal of business correspondence is to build and maintain goodwill, a favourable image and a good relationship between the organization and its customers, employees, suppliers and the public.

Every letter, memo or message, whether it sells, collects, complains or replies, should leave the reader with a positive impression of the company. This is done through courtesy, a you-viewpoint, a positive tone, promptness and honesty, so that the reader is willing to continue doing business with the firm.

Organizational communication is the exchange of messages inside and outside a business so that its work can be coordinated. Its three main forms are internal-operational, external-operational and personal communication.

1. Internal-operational communication

This is the communication that takes place within the organization and is needed to carry out its work. It includes orders, instructions, reports, memos, meeting notices, policy statements, and messages between departments. It flows in three directions:

• Downward: from managers to subordinates (instructions, policies, feedback).
• Upward: from employees to managers (reports, suggestions, complaints).
• Horizontal/lateral: between people at the same level (coordination between departments).

2. External-operational communication

This is the communication between the organization and outsiders in the course of its work: customers, suppliers, banks, government offices, the media and the public. Examples are sales letters, quotations, orders, complaints and adjustments, advertisements, public relations messages and reports to authorities. It helps the firm sell its goods, buy materials and maintain a good public image.

3. Personal communication

This is the social, non-work communication that happens among members of the organization, such as casual chat, gossip, jokes and the "grapevine". Although it is not part of official work, it affects morale, group feeling and cooperation. The grapevine spreads information quickly, so a manager should understand it and use it to advantage.

Together, these three forms keep the organization's people informed and coordinated and its relations with the outside world healthy.

Infinity of reality

Reality, the real world, is infinitely complex. Every object, event or person has an unlimited number of characteristics, details and relationships, so no description, however long, can tell everything about it. Language and perception are always selective: we notice and report only a few characteristics, and the rest is left out. Therefore any statement is only a partial account of what exists, and we should not suppose we know "all" about anything.

Illustration with a sheet of paper

Take an ordinary sheet of paper. We may first describe it as "white, rectangular, A4-sized". But look further and we can go on endlessly:

• Its physical properties: weight, thickness, texture, smoothness, absorbency, strength, colour shade, and the direction of its fibres.
• Its chemical and microscopic make-up: cellulose fibres, fillers, bleach and sizing; under a microscope each fibre has its own structure, which is made of molecules, and these are made of atoms and still smaller particles that are in constant motion.
• Its history: the tree it came from, where the tree grew, the factory and the people who made it, how it was transported and sold.
• Its uses and relations: for writing, wrapping, folding, a legal document, a note; its price, its owner, and what is written on it.
• Its changes over time: it is ageing, yellowing and absorbing moisture every moment.

However many facts we list, we can always add more. So our description of the paper is never the paper itself, and it can never be complete.

Lesson for communication

Because reality is infinite and our words are finite, we must remember that (1) what we say is only part of the truth; (2) other people may see other aspects; and (3) we should be open to additional information instead of assuming "that is all there is" (the blocked mind). The practical remedy is to add "etc." mentally to every statement and to stay flexible.

A viewpoint is the way a person sees and interprets things, events and people. It is a mental position built from all the person's experiences, and it governs how the person understands any message. Two people can look at the same thing and see it differently because their viewpoints differ. Viewpoints are not inborn; they are formed gradually by the following influences.

1. Heredity and physical makeup

Age, sex, health, height, intelligence and the condition of the senses affect how we perceive things. A tall person, a sick person or a person with weak eyesight perceives the world differently.

2. Environment and upbringing

Family, home, neighbourhood, social class, culture and religion shape our basic attitudes. A child in a village, in a joint family, or in a city learns very different values and expectations.

3. Education and training

Schooling and professional training give us concepts, vocabulary and ways of thinking. An accountant, a doctor and an engineer look at the same problem from different angles.

4. Experience

What happens to us, such as successes, failures, travel, jobs and relationships, is the strongest force. A person once cheated by a dealer will view all dealers with suspicion. Past experience works as a filter for new information.

5. Interests, needs and emotions

What we want and what we feel at the moment influences what we notice. A hungry person notices restaurants; an anxious person sees danger. Our motives, hopes and fears colour interpretation.

6. Influence of others (group and media)

Friends, teachers, colleagues, books, newspapers, television and the internet give us ready-made opinions that we often adopt without checking.

Importance in communication

Because each person's viewpoint is unique, the sender and receiver seldom understand a message in exactly the same way. A good communicator therefore studies the receiver's background and tries to see things from the receiver's side, which is the basis of the you-viewpoint.

I have chosen topic (c), College Transportation.

MEMORANDUM

TO: Mr. Ramesh Sharma, College Coordinator

FROM: Anita Thapa, Class Representative, BIM Second Semester

DATE: 21 October 2026

SUBJECT: Improving the College Transportation Service

Purpose

On behalf of the students of BIM Second Semester, I request that you consider improving the college bus service, which now creates difficulty for many of us.

Problems

1. Too few buses. Only two buses serve more than 300 students, so many students have to stand or wait for the next trip.
2. Irregular timing. Morning buses often leave 15 to 20 minutes late, and students arrive after the first class has started.
3. Limited routes. Students from Bhaktapur, Kirtipur and Budhanilkantha have no direct service.
4. Poor condition. Several seats are broken, and the buses are not cleaned regularly.

Suggestions

• Add at least one more bus, or hire a vehicle on contract for the peak hours.
• Fix a published timetable and keep to it.
• Extend service to the three routes above, based on a survey of students.
• Arrange regular cleaning and servicing.
• Form a small committee of students and staff to review the service every month.

Benefit

A better service will reduce lateness and absence, make travel safer for you and for us, and improve the reputation of the college.

I would be glad to discuss these points with you at your convenience, and the class will gladly help to prepare the route survey. Thank you for your attention.

Anita Thapa Class Representative

Kathmandu, Nepal 21 October 2026

Mr. Briju Mohan Kedia Managing Director LG Showroom Bishal Bazaar, New Road Kathmandu

Subject: Defective LG washing machine, Model F1096NDL, Bill No. 4587

Dear Mr. Kedia:

On 20 September 2026 I bought a new LG fully automatic front-load washing machine from your showroom. You will find the details below:

• Model: LG F1096NDL, 8 kg wash capacity
• Colour: Silver
• Power: 2,000 watts
• Bill number: 4587, dated 20 September 2026
• Amount paid: Rs 32,000

Within a month, two problems have appeared:

1. The automatic system does not work. The machine does not start the wash cycle on its own, and the programme selector stops halfway through the cycle, so I have to run each wash by hand.
2. Loud noise. During spinning, the machine makes a loud rattling and grinding sound that can be heard in the next room. Since then, the drum also vibrates and moves the machine across the floor.

You told me when I bought it that LG machines are quiet and trouble-free. You also gave me a one-year warranty, which is valid until 19 September 2027, so I believe these faults are covered by it.

I would therefore like you to send a technician to my home within the next three days to inspect the machine. If the faults cannot be repaired properly, please replace it with a new machine of the same model, or refund the Rs 32,000.

You can reach me on 98XXXXXXXX any day after 10 a.m. I am enclosing a copy of the bill and the warranty card so that you can check the details quickly. I look forward to hearing from you, and I am sure that you will want to keep a long-time customer satisfied.

Sincerely,

Sunil Adhikari Baneshwor, Kathmandu

Enclosures: Copy of bill no. 4587, copy of warranty card

Good public speaking depends on choosing the right method of presentation and on preparing the speaker, the audience analysis, the body and the voice.

1. Determining the presentation method

The speaker must decide how to deliver the speech. There are four usual methods:

• Impromptu: speaking without preparation. It is natural but risky and is suitable only for short remarks.
• Memorized: the whole speech is learned by heart. It allows good eye contact but sounds mechanical and fails if the speaker forgets a word.
• Reading from a manuscript: accurate and safe for technical or official speeches, but it reduces eye contact and spontaneity.
• Extemporaneous: the speaker prepares carefully and speaks from an outline or notes. It is the best method for most business situations because it is organized yet natural and flexible.

The choice depends on the occasion, time, importance of the topic, the audience size and the speaker's skill.

2. Personal aspects

The speaker should look and feel confident. This means being well prepared, dressing appropriately, being punctual, controlling nervousness (by practice and deep breathing), and showing enthusiasm, sincerity and a pleasant manner. Knowing the subject thoroughly gives confidence and credibility.

3. Audience analysis

Before the talk, find out who the listeners are: their number, age, education, occupation, interests, knowledge of the subject, and attitude toward the speaker and topic. Then adjust the vocabulary, examples, level of detail and length. For example, a technical talk for experts would be simplified for general listeners.

4. Bodily actions

Body language supports the words. The speaker should stand straight, move purposefully, use natural gestures, keep eye contact with all parts of the audience, show a pleasant facial expression, and avoid distracting habits such as fidgeting, pocket-jingling or pacing. Gestures should be neither stiff nor excessive.

5. Use of voice

The voice should be clear and audible to the last row. The speaker should control volume, pitch, rate (not too fast, not too slow), pauses and emphasis, pronounce words correctly, and vary the tone to avoid monotony. Pauses are valuable for emphasis and for letting ideas sink in. A microphone should be used properly if available.

Conclusion

An effective presentation results from a suitable method, a confident speaker, a well-analysed audience, supportive body language and a controlled, expressive voice.

Reality with substance means the solid, physical world of things that exist and have material content, which we can see, touch and measure, such as a table, a tree or a building. Such reality exists whether or not we describe it, and it is different from the words we use for it.

Illustration: A wooden chair is real because it has substance: it is made of wood, has weight and shape, and can be sat on. The word "chair" has no such substance; it is only a sign pointing to the chair.

The main objective of language is to communicate: to express thoughts, feelings and information, and to exchange them between people so that they can understand one another and cooperate. Language also lets people record and store knowledge, pass it on to later generations (time-binding), think in symbols, and organize social and business activity.

Two-valued (either-or) thinking sees only two extremes and ignores the middle ground. Examples in business communication:

1. "Either our product is the best in the market or it is useless", although it may be good but not the best.
2. "An employee is either loyal to the company or against it", ignoring the many degrees of loyalty and disagreement.

Revised sentence: "The old machines were used for the experiment."

Replacements: antiquated becomes old; mechanism becomes machines (the original verb "were" needs a plural subject); utilized becomes used; experimentation becomes experiment.

The you-viewpoint is a style of writing in which the message is written from the reader's point of view, stressing the reader's interests, needs and benefits instead of the writer's. It uses "you" and "your" more than "I", "we" and "our", and shows how the message helps the reader.

Example: Instead of "We are pleased to announce our new loan scheme", write "You can now get a loan on easy terms that suit your budget."

Sales writing is valuable because it:

• persuades customers to buy goods or services, so it raises sales and profit;
• reaches many people at low cost compared with personal selling;
• informs buyers about products and their benefits, and creates a demand;
• builds goodwill and the image of the firm, and keeps loyal customers;
• gives a permanent written record that the reader can study at leisure.

The factors of the problem that determine the report's purpose are:

1. The problem itself: a clear statement of exactly what must be found out.
2. The scope: how wide or narrow the investigation will be, and what is included or excluded.
3. The limitations: time, money, data and other constraints.
4. The readers: who will use the report, what they need, and what decision they must make.
5. The use of the report: the action or decision it is meant to support, and the definition of key terms.

We can conclude the following about non-verbal communication:

1. It is universal and continuous: we cannot avoid communicating, since even silence or stillness sends a message.
2. It is powerful: it often conveys feelings and attitudes more strongly and more honestly than words.
3. It works together with words: it can repeat, add to, replace, emphasize or contradict verbal messages.
4. It is mostly learned and culture-bound: the same gesture can mean different things in different cultures.
5. It is ambiguous when taken alone: signals should be read in groups and in context, not singly.

A viewpoint is not fixed. It changes as the person's circumstances, knowledge and feelings change. The main ways are as follows.

1. Through new experience

A new experience can overturn an old opinion. Illustration: A person who thinks that all government offices are slow may change this view after getting a passport within one day.

2. Through education and new information

Learning, reading and training widen the knowledge on which the viewpoint rests. Illustration: A shopkeeper who distrusts computers may accept them after being shown how billing software saves time and prevents errors.

3. Through change in physical or social position

Moving to a new job, rank, place or social group changes how we see things. Illustration: An employee promoted to manager begins to understand the problems of management and no longer sides automatically with the workers.

4. Through change in needs, interests and emotions

As needs and feelings change, so do perceptions. Illustration: A student who regarded saving as unimportant begins to value it after getting married and having a family.

5. Through persuasion and the influence of others

Friends, teachers, the media or a skilful speaker can alter opinions through reasons and example. Illustration: Advertising and a friend's recommendation may change a customer's view of a local brand.

6. Through conscious effort (open-mindedness)

By listening, putting oneself in another's place and accepting that reality is complex, a person can deliberately revise views.

Importance

A communicator who knows that viewpoints can change will not give up when the first message fails; he will provide new information and experience to change the receiver's mind patiently.

Letter of application

Baneshwor, Kathmandu 21 October 2026

The Manager, Human Resources Himalayan Trading Company Pvt. Ltd. Putalisadak, Kathmandu

Subject: Application for the post of Management Trainee (Marketing)

Dear Sir or Madam:

Your advertisement in The Kathmandu Post of 17 October 2026 for a Management Trainee in Marketing caught my attention, and I would like to be considered for the position.

I will complete my Bachelor of Information Management (BIM) at Tribhuvan University this semester. In my studies I have taken courses in marketing, business communication, accounting and database systems. In my final year I also led a team that surveyed customers of local shops and wrote a market report, which was graded A. These experiences have taught me to analyse data, write clearly and work with others, and I believe they will be useful to your marketing team.

During the last two summers I worked part-time as a sales assistant in a stationery shop, where I increased monthly sales of school supplies by about 10% through better displays and customer follow-up. I also work comfortably with spreadsheets and presentation software, and I am fluent in Nepali and English.

My resume is enclosed. I would welcome an interview at any time convenient to you, and you can reach me at 98XXXXXXXX or at binod.karki@example.com. Thank you for considering my application.

Sincerely,

Binod Karki

Enclosure: Resume

RESUME

Binod Karki Baneshwor, Kathmandu | 98XXXXXXXX | binod.karki@example.com

Career objective To begin a career in marketing in a progressive firm where I can use my analytical and communication skills and grow professionally.

Education

Experience

• Part-time Sales Assistant, Gyan Stationery, Kathmandu (2024 to 2025): handled customers, arranged displays and kept the stock records.
• Intern, Everest Marketing Services (summer 2025): helped to prepare a customer survey and a report.

Skills

• MS Word, Excel, PowerPoint; basic SQL and web design
• Report writing and presentation
• Teamwork and leadership

Activities and achievements

• Class representative, BIM Second Semester
• Organizer, college business fair 2025

Languages: Nepali (native), English (fluent), Hindi

Personal details: Date of birth 12 March 2003; Nationality: Nepali

References

1. Mr. Rajan Shrestha, Lecturer, Kathmandu College, 01-4XXXXXX
2. Ms. Sita Pandey, Owner, Gyan Stationery, 98XXXXXXXX

Interpretation means finding the meaning of the data collected and explaining what it implies for the problem. The five fundamentals of interpretation in report writing are:

1. Keep the problem and the purpose in view: interpretation must always relate to the problem stated.
2. Use proper (sufficient, relevant and reliable) evidence: conclusions must rest on enough accurate data.
3. Look for the multiple meanings and the effects of bias: consider other possible explanations; avoid prejudice.
4. Think about the relationships between variables (cause and effect), and avoid false conclusions: correlation is not always cause.
5. Be objective and keep a sense of proportion: use judgement and clearly separate facts, inferences and opinions.

Two of these in detail

(a) Keeping the problem and purpose in view

The report writer has to remember at each step the exact problem that the report is to solve. Data may suggest many interesting things, but only those that help to answer the problem should be selected and interpreted. For example, in a report on why a store's sales have fallen, interpreting staff birthday data would be irrelevant. Keeping the purpose in focus keeps the report short, relevant and useful to the reader's decision.

(b) Use of sufficient, relevant and reliable evidence

Conclusions are only as sound as the evidence behind them. The writer should check that the data comes from a trustworthy source, is up to date, is large and representative enough (for example, a sample of five customers is too small to represent 5,000), and bears directly on the problem. Hasty generalization from a few cases, or reliance on a single source, leads to false conclusions. Where the evidence is weak, the writer should say so and qualify the conclusion ("the data suggests") rather than state it as certain.

The two most important types of non-verbal communication are kinesics (body language) and paralanguage (voice qualities).

1. Kinesics (body language)

This covers facial expression, eye contact, gestures, posture and movement.

• It is the most visible and constant form of NVC; whenever people meet, their bodies are sending signals.
• The face and eyes show emotions such as joy, anger, fear and interest more directly than words.
• It is hard to control completely, so it reveals true feelings. When the words and the body contradict each other, listeners usually believe the body.
• It helps in regulating conversation (nodding, turn-taking) and in forming first impressions at interviews and meetings.

2. Paralanguage (voice qualities)

This is how the words are said: tone, pitch, volume, speed, pauses and stress.

• The same sentence can mean praise or sarcasm depending on the tone: "That is a great idea" said warmly or mockingly.
• It expresses emotion and attitude (confidence, nervousness, anger, sincerity).
• It is vital in telephone and recorded communication, where the body cannot be seen.
• It affects the emphasis and clarity of the message and the speaker's credibility.

Justification

Both types are present in nearly every face-to-face and voice communication, carry the main emotional content of a message, influence the receiver's impression and understanding more than the words alone, and are difficult to fake. Other types, such as dress, space and time, are important but depend on circumstances and are less continuous. Therefore, kinesics and paralanguage are the most important.

Two short notes are given below, on (a) and (b).

(a) Universal ingredients of human communication

Whatever the culture or situation, all human communication contains certain basic elements:

1. Sender (source): the person who has an idea and wants to share it.
2. Message: the idea, information or feeling expressed, coded in words, symbols or gestures.
3. Encoding and channel: the message is put into symbols and carried through a medium such as speech, writing, telephone or the body.
4. Receiver: the person who receives and decodes the message.
5. Decoding and interpretation: the receiver gives meaning to the symbols, according to his own experience and viewpoint.
6. Feedback: the receiver's response, showing whether the message was understood.
7. Context and noise: the situation and any disturbance (physical, psychological, semantic) which can distort the message.

Communication is complete only when the receiver understands the message as the sender intended.

(b) Avoiding sexist words

Sexist language treats one sex (usually women) as inferior or invisible, or assumes that certain jobs belong to one sex. A business writer should avoid it because it offends readers and harms goodwill. Ways to avoid it:

• Replace masculine "generic" words with neutral ones: chairman with chairperson, salesman with salesperson, businessman with business executive, manpower with workforce, mankind with humanity.
• Avoid "he/his" for all persons; use plural forms ("Workers must wear their badges") or "he or she", or reword the sentence.
• Do not use titles that show marital status; use "Ms." where preferred.
• Do not stereotype roles (e.g. "the nurse... she", "the doctor... he"), and treat men and women parallel (say "men and women", not "men and girls").

The "real world", or the world of reality, is the actual world of objects, persons and events that exists around us, independent of our words and opinions about it. It is infinitely complex and always changing. We know it only through our senses, and we describe only part of it in words; our statements are therefore maps of reality, not reality itself.

The map-territory relationship says that a word, statement or idea (the map) is not the thing it describes (the territory). A map represents a territory but is not the territory: it shows only some features, may be out of date, and may be wrong.

In communication, our words and mental pictures are maps of reality. We must remember that:

1. The map is not the territory: the word "water" cannot quench thirst.
2. The map does not show everything: it leaves out many details.
3. Maps may be inaccurate or outdated, so we should check them against reality.

Confusing the map with the territory leads to misunderstanding, prejudice and bad decisions. A good communicator tests his statements against facts and is ready to revise them.

Revised sentence: "His performance was good enough to qualify him for promotion."

An even shorter form is "His performance qualified him for promotion." The surplus words "to enable him" and "the" are removed without changing the meaning.

Ethics and public relations writing are closely related. Public relations aims to build goodwill and a good image, and goodwill lasts only if it is based on honesty and responsibility. Ethical PR writing:

• tells the truth and does not mislead, exaggerate or hide important facts;
• respects the rights and interests of the public, customers and employees;
• gives credit to sources, respects privacy and avoids defamation;
• reflects social responsibility.

Unethical writing may produce short-term gain, but once it is discovered, the credibility and reputation of the organization are damaged. Ethics is thus the foundation of effective public relations writing.

Talking captions are headings that state the main point or finding of a section instead of merely naming its topic. Two examples:

• Topic caption: "Sales" becomes talking caption: "Sales Rose 15 Percent in the Second Quarter".
• Topic caption: "Staff Turnover" becomes talking caption: "High Turnover Is Caused by Low Pay and Poor Scheduling".

Extemporaneous presentation is regarded as best because the speaker prepares and rehearses the outline and key points but does not memorise or read the text. It sounds natural and conversational, keeps eye contact with the audience, and lets the speaker adapt to audience reactions and questions. It also avoids the stiffness of reading and the risk of forgetting a memorised script.

Edward Hall's four informal spaces (conversational distances) in proxemics are:

1. Intimate distance: from touching up to about 18 inches (0.5 m).
2. Personal distance: about 18 inches to 4 feet (0.5 to 1.2 m).
3. Social distance: about 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.6 m).
4. Public distance: more than 12 feet (over 3.6 m).

Place of communication in human society

Communication is the exchange of information, ideas, feelings and meanings between people. It is the thread that holds human society together. Without it, people could not form groups, share knowledge or cooperate.

Place of communication in society

• Social bonding: families, friendships, communities and nations exist and function through continuous exchange of messages.
• Transmission of culture and knowledge: language, customs, values, science and skills are passed from generation to generation. Humans "bind time" by recording experience in speech, writing and print, so each generation builds on the last.
• Education and development: learning in schools, media and the workplace depends on communication.
• Decision-making and cooperation: societies need discussion, persuasion, law and government to organise common action and settle conflict.
• Economic life: trade, advertising, negotiation, management and customer service all rest on communication. Organisations cannot plan, direct or coordinate without it.
• Personal development: it shapes self-concept, relationships and emotional well-being. We learn who we are through the responses of others.
• Technology and globalisation: telephone, radio, television and the internet have shrunk distance and linked the world.

Is communication indispensable?

Yes. Human beings cannot avoid communicating: even silence, posture or absence sends a message. An individual deprived of communication suffers isolation and a stunted mind, and a society or business without it would collapse into confusion. Progress, survival and civilisation all depend on it. Communication is therefore as essential to social life as food and water are to physical life.

Filtering process

Filtering is the process by which we select, from the huge amount of stimuli around us, only what we pay attention to, and by which we then shape the message we send or receive. Our senses and minds cannot take in everything, so we filter. Filtering can distort, delete or colour the message, which causes misunderstanding.

Principal factors in and affecting filtering

1. Sensory limits: the senses detect only a limited range. We cannot hear very high pitches or see in the dark, so we miss part of reality.
2. Interest and need: we notice what matters to us. A hungry person notices food shops; a job seeker notices vacancy notices on a walk through the same street.
3. Past experience and knowledge: what we already know decides what we notice and how we interpret it. A doctor and a layperson hear the same symptoms differently.
4. Attitudes, opinions, beliefs and values: we accept what agrees with them and reject or ignore what disagrees. A manager who believes "workers are lazy" reads every delay as laziness.
5. Emotions and mood: anger, fear or joy change what we hear. An anxious employee may read a neutral remark as criticism.
6. Culture and language: the same word or gesture carries different meanings in different cultures.
7. Physical and environmental conditions: noise, fatigue, illness and distraction reduce attention.
8. Status, relationship and trust: we filter messages from a boss differently from those of a peer. Subordinates may filter bad news upward to avoid blame.
9. Expectations and mind-set: we tend to see and hear what we expect to see and hear.

Example: Three people watch a road accident. One notices the damaged vehicles, another the injured people, a third the driver's speed. Each reports a different, partial account. In a business, a clerk tells the manager only the good news, so the manager receives a filtered and incomplete picture.

Remedy: be aware of our own filters, check understanding by feedback, ask questions, use several channels, and keep messages clear and complete.

The abstraction process

Abstraction is the process of selecting some characteristics of an object or event and leaving out others. Because reality is infinite and language is finite, each word we use stands for a few selected features. As we go up the levels, more details are dropped and the words become more general.

Figure: the abstraction ladder (Hayakawa / Korzybski)

Level 5 (most abstract)  Wealth / Asset
        ^
Level 4                  Farm assets
        ^
Level 3                  Livestock
        ^
Level 2                  Cow
        ^
Level 1                  "Bessie" (a particular cow, with its own look and behaviour)
        ^
Level 0 (event/object)   The actual cow: a living process of atoms, cells, changes

Explanation

• Event level (process level): the real object itself, in constant change and with infinite detail. Words cannot capture it fully.
• Object level: what our senses pick up. We already leave out much of the detail.
• Low-level abstraction: a specific name or label, such as "Bessie". It keeps many details.
• Higher abstractions: "cow", "livestock", "farm asset", "wealth". Each step drops more characteristics and includes more individual things.

Another example: Ram's Hero Honda motorcycle, then motorcycle, then vehicle, then means of transport, then property.

Importance in communication

• Concrete (low-level) words are clear and vivid; high-level words are vague and open to different interpretations.
• Good communicators move between levels. They state a general idea and support it with specific examples.
• Staying at a high level ("improve quality") confuses the receiver, while "reduce defects from 5 percent to 2 percent by June" is precise.
• Abstraction is also the reason a word is never the thing itself, and no statement tells "all" about reality.

AIDA in a sales letter

A sales letter follows the AIDA plan: it must gain Attention, arouse Interest, create Desire and prompt Action.

1. Attention devices

• A striking opening: a question, a news item, a surprising fact, a bold offer or a story.
• A gift, sample, discount or free trial mentioned at once.
• Eye-catching layout, headline, colour or illustration; a personal tone.

2. Interest devices

• Describe the product's main features and how they benefit the reader (use the "you" viewpoint).
• Use facts, figures, demonstrations, comparisons and short, vivid sentences.
• Show how it solves the reader's problem or saves time and money.

3. Desire devices

• Testimonials and endorsements from satisfied users.
• Guarantees, warranties, free samples, trial periods.
• Price comparisons, instalment plans, and descriptions that let the reader picture using the product.

4. Action devices

• A clear, easy next step: tell the reader exactly what to do, with a reply card, phone number or order form.
• A deadline or limited offer ("offer ends 30 June"), a free gift for prompt ordering.
• Make it easy: postage-paid envelope, toll-free number, online order.

Illustration

Kathmandu Books Pvt. Ltd. Putalisadak, Kathmandu 12 Ashadh 2083

Dear Ms. Sharma,

Did you know that you can learn English in just 30 days? (Attention)

Our new self-study course "Speak Up English" is designed for busy people like you. It comes with 30 lessons, audio recordings for pronunciation and weekly practice tests, so you can learn at your own pace in only 20 minutes a day. (Interest)

Over 5,000 students have already improved their spoken English. "I got my job after finishing this course," says Sunita Thapa, a bank officer. If you are not satisfied, return the course within 15 days and we will refund your full payment. (Desire)

Order before 30 Ashadh and you will receive the course for Rs 1,500 instead of Rs 2,000, together with a free dictionary. Simply fill in the enclosed card and post it, or call 01-4XXXXXX today. (Action)

Yours sincerely,

Rajan Adhikari Marketing Manager

Option (a): Inadequacy of student facilities in the college

MEMORANDUM

TO: Principal, ABC College, Kathmandu FROM: Sita Rai, Coordinator, BIM Student Council DATE: 15 Ashwin 2083 SUBJECT: Inadequate student facilities and suggested improvements

Purpose This memo draws your attention to the inadequate facilities for students and recommends action before the next semester begins.

Problem

1. Library: only about 3,000 books for 600 students, and seating for just 40.
2. Computer lab: 25 computers for 250 BIM students, and many are out of order, so students wait for hours.
3. Classrooms: crowded, poorly ventilated and without enough benches.
4. Sanitation and drinking water: too few clean toilets and one working water purifier.
5. Canteen and sports: a small canteen and no space for indoor games.

Effects Students cannot complete assignments and projects, attendance and morale fall, and the college's reputation suffers.

Recommendations

1. Purchase at least 1,000 new reference books and add a reading hall for 100 students.
2. Repair the old computers and add 25 new ones, with internet.
3. Add benches and fans and repaint the classrooms.
4. Build two toilet blocks and install two more water purifiers.
5. Extend the canteen and set aside a room for indoor games.

Action requested Please discuss these needs at the next management meeting. The student council can help prepare a budget and offer to raise part of the funds through alumni donations. I would appreciate your reply by 30 Ashwin.

(a) Fundamental truths of communication

The fundamental truths are basic principles that hold for all communication:

1. Communication is a process, not a single act, and it is continuous.
2. Communication is inevitable: we cannot not communicate, since silence and behaviour also carry messages.
3. Communication is irreversible: once a message has been sent it cannot be taken back.
4. Meaning lies in people, not in words. A receiver interprets a message according to his own experience.
5. Communication is a two-way exchange between sender and receiver and needs feedback.
6. Communication is symbolic, using verbal and non-verbal symbols that are not the things themselves.
7. Communication is affected by context, noise, culture, attitudes and perception, so total understanding is never guaranteed.

(b) The infinity of reality

Reality (an object or event) has infinite characteristics, details and aspects, and is always changing. Our senses and language can pick up only a few of them, so no statement can tell "everything" about anything. We abstract, selecting some details and omitting others. Therefore any description is only partial. Two people viewing the same event describe it differently. The lesson for communicators is to avoid "all", "always" and "never", to use qualifiers such as "up to date" and "so far as I know", to be open to additional information, and not to assume that we know the whole story.

High frequency of communication means that in modern society, particularly in business, people send and receive a very large number of messages in a short time through telephone, email, social media, meetings, reports and other channels. Communication takes up most of a manager's working day. This high volume and speed raises the risk of overload, distortion and misunderstanding, so messages must be well planned and clear.

"Binding time" means that human beings can store and pass on knowledge and experience across time. Through language, writing, printing and now electronic recording, people preserve what has been learned and pass it to later generations, who build on it instead of starting afresh. Unlike animals, humans therefore link past, present and future and so make progress and civilisation possible.

Seeing communication as a process, an ongoing and dynamic chain of sender, message, channel, receiver and feedback, makes us realise that there is no clear beginning or end and that many elements affect the result. It helps us locate and correct the point at which a breakdown occurs (noise, wrong channel, no feedback), encourages continual feedback and adjustment, and leads to more effective and complete communication instead of treating a message as a one-time act.

The universal ingredients (elements) of human communication are:

1. Sender (source)
2. Message
3. Encoding
4. Channel (medium)
5. Receiver
6. Decoding
7. Feedback
8. Context (situation)
9. Noise (barriers)

This engine tends to get very noisy when it runs hot.

Paralanguage is how something is said rather than what is said: tone, pitch, volume, speed and pauses. For example, the words "That's a great idea" said warmly and with a smile show real praise, but the same words said in a flat or sarcastic tone mean the opposite. The meaning therefore changes with the manner of speaking.

The popular presentation methods are:

1. Impromptu: speaking on the spot without preparation.
2. Memorised: the full text is learned by heart and recited.
3. Manuscript (reading from a script): the speaker reads a written text.
4. Extemporaneous: the speaker prepares and rehearses an outline and key points but delivers it in a natural, conversational way. It is usually regarded as the best.

Malfunctions of communication

Malfunctions are the breakdowns and failures that prevent a message from being understood as intended. Main malfunctions include:

1. Time lag
2. Filtering
3. Inference mistakes (confusing inference with fact)
4. Bypassing (different meanings for the same word)
5. Two-valued thinking and polarisation
6. Allness (assuming one knows all)
7. Static evaluation (ignoring change)
8. Abstraction problems and poor listening
9. Noise and information overload

Explanation of two

(a) Bypassing. The sender and receiver attach different meanings to the same words, so they miss each other's meaning. Example: A manager tells an assistant, "Get the report out as soon as possible." The manager means "within the day", but the assistant understands "when I finish my other work" and delivers it two days later. The two parties believed they had understood, yet their meanings passed each other by. Remedy: use specific words (deadline and time), ask for feedback, paraphrase.

(b) Filtering. The sender or receiver selects, shortens or changes information, so the message is incomplete. Example: A supervisor tells the general manager that "everything is going well" and leaves out the machine breakdown, because he fears blame. The manager then makes decisions on a false picture. Remedy: shorter communication chains, open climate, direct feedback.

The you-viewpoint

The you-viewpoint (you-attitude) means writing or speaking from the reader's point of view: emphasising what the reader wants, needs, gains or feels, rather than what the writer wants. For example, "You will receive your refund within five days" rather than "We will send the refund after we process it."

My stand: The statement is not correct. The you-viewpoint is reader-centred, not self-centred.

Reasons

1. The aim is to serve the receiver's interests, so the focus is on "you" and not "I" or "we".
2. It shows courtesy, respect and empathy, which build goodwill.
3. It makes the message more persuasive because people respond to benefits to themselves.
4. It is not flattery or insincerity: it must be honest and used where it fits the facts. A message which says "you" but is manipulative would be dishonest, but that is misuse and not the viewpoint itself.
5. Overuse of the word "you" is not required; the attitude is what matters. Negative situations avoid "you" ("Your account is overdue" becomes "The account shows a balance due").

Why it is necessary in business

• Customers buy benefits, so sales letters emphasise what the product does for the buyer.
• It retains customers and builds a positive image and goodwill.
• It helps in giving bad news without offending, in collection and complaint letters.
• It improves relations with employees (memos, circulars) and obtains cooperation.
• It makes messages clearer, since they are planned around the receiver's needs and background.

Example: Self-centred: "We are pleased to announce that we have opened a branch." You-viewpoint: "Now you can bank close to home: our new branch opens at your neighbourhood on Sunday."

Hence the you-viewpoint is essential for effective business communication.

Fundamentals of interpretation

Interpretation is the process by which a receiver gives meaning to the message and to the events around him. The fundamentals (basic principles) are:

1. Meaning is in people, not in words. Words have no meaning in themselves; people give them meaning from their own experience.
2. Interpretation depends on the context. The same words mean different things in different situations.
3. It depends on past experience, knowledge and background.
4. It is influenced by attitudes, beliefs and emotions (viewpoints).
5. Perception is selective (filtering and abstraction): we notice only parts of reality.
6. Facts, inferences and judgments must be distinguished.
7. Words have denotative and connotative meanings.
8. Interpretation is a continuous and changing process (dated and updated).

Elaboration of two

(a) Meaning is in people, not words. A word is only a symbol. If a boss says "good" about a report, the writer may understand "excellent" while the boss means "acceptable". Since the speaker and listener have different backgrounds, they may interpret the same word differently. The communicator should therefore choose precise words and confirm understanding with feedback.

(b) Interpretation depends on context. Context covers the physical setting, the relationship between people, the time and the culture. "Fire!" shouted in a crowded building and "Fire!" heard on a firing range mean very different things. A thumbs-up is approval in many cultures but offensive in some. A good communicator takes the context into account while encoding and the receiver while decoding.

Long reports and short reports

A short report deals with routine matters briefly (usually a few pages) and often takes the form of a letter or memo. A long report is a detailed, formal study of a major problem and is usually a lengthy document.

Thus the choice depends on the importance, complexity and audience of the subject.

Non-verbal communication (NVC)

NVC is the exchange of messages without words. The two most important types are kinesics and paralanguage (vocal cues).

1. Kinesics (body language)

It is the study of body movement and covers:

• Facial expression: shows feelings such as happiness, anger, surprise and fear. The face is the most expressive part of the body.
• Eye contact: steady eye contact signals confidence, interest and honesty; avoiding eye contact may signal shyness, discomfort or deceit (meanings vary by culture).
• Gestures: hand and arm movements such as pointing, waving and nodding.
• Posture and body shape: upright posture shows confidence and attention; slouching shows boredom or lack of interest.
• Movement and touch: a firm handshake gives a good impression.

Body language often shows true feelings and can repeat, replace or contradict spoken words.

2. Paralanguage

It is the way words are spoken rather than the words themselves:

• Tone, pitch, volume, rate (speed), pauses, stress and voice quality, as well as laughing, sighing and crying.
• The sentence "I am fine" can show real wellbeing or hide anger, depending on the tone.
• Stress changes meaning: "I did not say he stole the money" has different meanings when each word is stressed in turn.

In business, controlled paralanguage helps convey confidence, courtesy and sincerity, for instance in interviews, presentations and customer service. Non-verbal cues should agree with the verbal message, or the receiver will tend to trust the non-verbal cues.

Memorandum as a reminder

A memorandum (memo) is a short internal message used for routine communication within an organisation. It may serve as a record of decisions or as a reminder of something to be done.

MEMORANDUM

TO: All Department Heads FROM: Hari Prasad Sharma, General Manager DATE: 10 Kartik 2083 SUBJECT: Reminder: Submission of quarterly performance reports

This is a reminder that the first-quarter performance reports of all departments are due on Sunday, 17 Kartik 2083, by 4 pm.

Please remember to:

1. Use the standard report format circulated on 1 Kartik.
2. Include sales or output figures, expenses against budget and staffing details.
3. Give a brief note on problems and plans for the next quarter.
4. Send a soft copy to the Administration Office, with a signed hard copy.

Reports received late cannot be included in the board meeting on 20 Kartik. If you need extra time or help, please contact my secretary before 14 Kartik.

Thank you for your cooperation.

HPS

(As a record, a memo would instead summarise decisions made, e.g. "The meeting of 5 Kartik decided to purchase ten computers for Rs 8,00,000, to be installed by 30 Kartik.")

(a) The infinity of reality

Any object or event has an endless number of characteristics and is continually changing. Language and our senses can capture only a few of them, so any statement is incomplete, however long. Therefore we should not assume that we "know all" about something. We should use qualifiers such as "as far as I know", avoid "always" and "never", and stay open to new information and other views.

(b) Formation of viewpoints

A viewpoint is the way a person looks at things. It is formed by:

• Experience: what a person has seen and lived through.
• Education and knowledge.
• Family, society and culture: upbringing, religion, customs.
• Peers, media and role models.
• Personality, needs and emotions.
• Occupation and status.

Opinions (judgments), attitudes (tendencies to react) and beliefs (convictions) arise from these and in turn shape what we notice and how we interpret messages. Viewpoints can change with new experience, education and information. A communicator should understand the receiver's viewpoint and adapt the message to it.

Denotative meaning is the direct, literal, dictionary meaning of a word, which is the same for everyone. Example: "home" denotes a place where a person lives.

Connotative meaning is the additional emotional, personal or cultural association that a word carries beyond its literal meaning. Example: "home" connotes warmth, family and security. Another example: "slim" (positive) and "skinny" (negative) both denote thin, but connote different attitudes.

Time lag is the delay between the sending of a message and the receiver's response, or between an event and the communication about it. It occurs because people and situations change while the message travels or while the receiver acts. For example, a price list sent last year may be out of date by the time the customer receives it, and a decision based on old reports may be wrong. The remedy is to date and update information and use faster channels.

External operational communication in a college is the day-to-day communication with outside parties. Types include:

1. Communication with the affiliating university or board (TU): registration, examination forms, results, reports.
2. Communication with students' parents and guardians: fee notices, results, meeting invitations.
3. Communication with government offices and regulators such as the University Grants Commission and tax offices.
4. Communication with suppliers and service providers: purchase orders, quotations, bills.
5. Communication with banks for payments and accounts.
6. Advertisements and admission notices to the public and the press.
7. Communication with other colleges, employers and alumni for internships, placement and events.

Language is living because it keeps changing with its users and time. New words are created (e.g. "selfie", "email"), old words fall out of use, and meanings change (e.g. "mouse", "cloud"). Pronunciation, grammar and usage also evolve with culture, technology and society. Like a living organism, language grows, adapts and sometimes dies, so communicators must use current and appropriate words.

Communication begins with perception. We receive information through the five senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste), and these form our understanding of the world and shape the messages we send and the way we interpret those we receive. Because the senses are limited and selective (filtering and abstraction), two people perceive the same event differently, and so understand a message differently. Communication in turn passes our perceptions to others and corrects them through feedback. Better perception therefore means better communication.

Fundamental (essential) elements of a business letter:

1. Letterhead (sender's name and address)
2. Date
3. Inside address (name and address of the receiver)
4. Salutation (e.g. Dear Sir/Madam)
5. Body (message)
6. Complimentary close (e.g. Yours faithfully/sincerely)
7. Signature, with typed name and designation

Optional elements:

1. Reference number
2. Attention line
3. Subject line
4. Special mailing notations (registered, by hand, confidential)
5. Enclosure notation
6. Carbon copy (cc) notation
7. Postscript (P.S.)
8. Typist's initials and second-page heading

Kinesics is the study of body movements as communication. Body shape and posture reveal feelings and character without words. An upright, open posture signals confidence, alertness and respect, while slouching, crossed arms or a hunched body suggest boredom, defensiveness or low confidence. A person's build, along with grooming, may also lead others to form first impressions (though these can be wrong). In interviews and meetings a controlled posture helps to create a positive impression.

Yes, inferences are necessary. An inference is a conclusion drawn from known facts about something unknown. Because we can never get complete information (the infinity of reality), we must infer to understand, plan and act. We infer, for example, that a customer is unhappy from his tone. But inferences are not facts and may be wrong, so we should treat them as probabilities, distinguish them from facts, use qualifiers ("it seems"), and verify them through feedback and questions.

A roundabout sentence uses many words to say what a short, direct sentence can say. The usual change is to put the main idea first and cut wordy phrases. For example:

• Roundabout: "It is the opinion of the committee that the proposal should be given consideration at the earliest possible time."

• Direct: "The committee should consider the proposal soon."

• Roundabout: "Due to the fact that the goods were damaged in transit, we are in a position to make a claim."

• Direct: "Because the goods were damaged in transit, we can claim."

Nonverbal communication is the exchange of messages without words, or alongside words, through body movement, voice quality, space, time, appearance and objects. It is estimated that a large share of the meaning in face-to-face communication is carried nonverbally.

Five types

(a) Kinesics (body language). Body movement, posture, gestures, facial expression, eye contact and handshake. A smile shows warmth, crossed arms may show defensiveness, and steady eye contact shows confidence and honesty.

(b) Proxemics (use of space). How people use distance and territory. Four informal distances are intimate (up to about 45 cm), personal (about 45 cm to 1.2 m), social (about 1.2 to 3.6 m) and public (beyond 3.6 m). Office layout and seating also send messages about status and openness.

(c) Paralanguage (vocal cues). How something is said rather than what is said: tone, pitch, volume, speed, pauses and stress. "I didn't say he stole it" changes meaning with the stressed word.

(d) Chronemics (time language). Use of time. Punctuality, keeping someone waiting, or the time given to a meeting signals respect, status and priority.

(e) Appearance and artifacts. Dress, grooming, personal objects, office decoration and colour. A neat professional appearance creates credibility and a good first impression.

Other types include haptics (touch), silence and smell. Nonverbal signals should match the spoken words. When they conflict, listeners usually trust the nonverbal message.

Public speaking is the art of delivering a planned oral message to a live audience in order to inform, persuade, motivate or entertain. In business it is used in meetings, sales pitches, training sessions and official ceremonies.

Three methods of presentation

(a) Impromptu (unprepared) speaking. The speaker talks on the spot with little or no preparation. It sounds natural but can be disorganised and is risky on complex topics. It suits short remarks, answers to questions and toasts.

(b) Memorised (or manuscript) speaking. The speech is written in full and either memorised or read from the script. It gives accuracy and exact timing, which suits legal or policy statements. It can sound stiff, reduces eye contact, and fails badly if the speaker forgets a line.

(c) Extemporaneous speaking. The speaker prepares thoroughly and works from an outline or key-point notes, then delivers it in his or her own words. It combines organisation with natural delivery and eye contact, and is usually the best method for business presentations.

Techniques for the presenter

• Analyse the audience and set a clear objective.
• Organise into introduction, body and conclusion.
• Begin with a strong opening, such as a story, question or fact.
• Rehearse several times, and time yourself.
• Keep eye contact and use natural gestures.
• Control voice: volume, pace, pauses and emphasis.
• Use visual aids (slides, charts) simply and sparingly.
• Handle nervousness by breathing and preparing well.
• Invite questions and end with a clear summary or call to action.

MEMORANDUM

To: Mr. Ram Prasad Sharma, General Manager From: Sita Karki, Head, Operations Department Date: 10 June 2013 Subject: Request for hi-tech equipment for the expanded department

As you know, our department is being extended and the company is committed to delivering quality service. To maintain this standard, I request approval to purchase the following equipment:

1. 15 desktop computers (latest generation processors, 8 GB RAM)
2. 2 high-speed network laser printers/scanners
3. 1 enterprise server with data backup unit
4. 1 video-conferencing system
5. Network switches and a UPS power backup

Justification

• Speed and productivity: Present machines are old and slow, causing delays in processing client requests.
• Quality and accuracy: Modern equipment reduces errors and supports better reporting.
• Capacity: The new staff joining the extended department cannot be served with the existing equipment.
• Data security: A proper server and backup protect important client records.
• Cost saving: Faster work and lower repair costs will repay the investment within about two years.

Date required: The equipment should be installed by 1 August 2013, before the extended department begins operation.

Quotations from three suppliers are attached. I would be glad to discuss this with you at your convenience, and I thank you for your kind consideration.

Attachment: Supplier quotations (3)

Difference between long and short reports

Format of a short report

Title: Report on (subject)

To / From / Date / Subject (heading block)

1. Introduction: purpose, scope and authority for the report.
2. Findings (body): facts and data in logical order, with short headings, tables or lists.
3. Conclusion: what the facts mean.
4. Recommendations: specific actions suggested.
5. Signature and date, with attachments if any.

(a) Guidelines for interviewee

• Prepare: learn about the organisation, the post and likely questions; revise your own qualifications.
• Be punctual and well dressed; carry copies of the CV, certificates and references.
• Create a good first impression: greet politely, shake hands firmly, sit properly.
• Listen carefully and answer honestly, clearly and briefly.
• Show confidence and positive body language, with eye contact.
• Ask relevant questions about the job and organisation, but avoid raising salary first.
• Close politely, thank the interviewers, and send a thank-you note if suitable.

(b) Context as aid to meaning

Words alone are often ambiguous, so meaning depends on context, the surroundings in which a word is used. There are two kinds: verbal context (the other words and sentences around the word) and physical or situational context (the place, time, speaker and circumstances). For example, "bank" means a financial institution in "deposit money in the bank" but a river edge in "sat on the bank". Context removes ambiguity, helps interpret connotation, and shows how a word is intended. A communicator should give enough context to avoid misunderstanding.

(c) Principles of clear writing

Use familiar words; prefer short sentences and paragraphs; use the active voice and strong verbs; avoid camouflaged verbs and clutter; keep one idea per paragraph; be specific and concrete; organise logically; and edit and revise (see the full list in the longer answer on principles of clear writing).

(d) Paralanguage

Paralanguage is the vocal, non-word part of speech: tone, pitch, volume, speed, pauses, stress and also sounds such as sighs and laughter. It shows emotion and attitude. "Thank you" said warmly or sarcastically carries opposite meanings. Skilled speakers control paralanguage to sound confident, sincere and clear.

Management consists of planning, organising, staffing, directing (leading) and controlling, and each function depends on communication.

• Planning: managers collect information, share goals and plans with staff.
• Organising: roles, authority and reporting relationships are explained through orders, charts and meetings.
• Staffing: recruitment, interviews, training and appraisal all involve messages.
• Directing: instructions, motivation and guidance are given orally or in writing.
• Controlling: performance reports and feedback tell managers whether results match plans.

Without communication, none of these functions could be carried out, since managers work through other people. Hence the statement is true.

The filter of the mind is the set of personal factors through which we receive, select and interpret information, so each person perceives the same event differently. It includes:

• Experience and background (education, culture, upbringing)
• Viewpoints
• Opinions, attitudes and beliefs
• Needs, interests and emotions
• Expectations and prejudices
• Physical state and sense limitations

Because of this filter, we see only a part of reality and may alter it.

We live in two worlds in the sense that one is the external world of reality, the actual events and things outside us, and the other is the internal world of our mind, which is our picture of that reality made by our senses, experience, language and beliefs. We act upon our mental picture (the "map"), not reality itself (the "territory"). Since the map is incomplete and may be inaccurate, misunderstanding and communication failure arise when the two do not match.

Two extreme effects of a blocked mind are:

1. Refusal to accept new information or ideas, leading to prejudice, stereotyping and rigid thinking, so the person cannot learn or adjust.
2. Extreme emotional or behavioural reactions, such as hostility, withdrawal, fanaticism or mental breakdown, in which communication stops completely.

The company has established a rehabilitation center.

The camouflaged verbs "establishment" and "accomplished" are replaced by the single clear verb "established", and the passive voice becomes active.

Sales writing is persuasive business writing, such as sales letters, promotional messages, brochures and advertisements, whose aim is to attract attention, create interest and desire for a product or service, and lead the reader to buy (the AIDA approach).

Importance to business communication:

• It brings new customers and increases sales and revenue.
• It builds goodwill and the company image.
• It informs customers about products, prices and benefits.
• It keeps existing customers loyal and helps compete in the market.
• It is relatively cheap compared with personal selling.

A hypothesis in a report is a tentative statement or assumption about the cause of a problem or the relationship between factors. It is stated at the start of the investigation, then tested against the data, and accepted or rejected in the findings. It gives direction to the research.

Example (business): "The decline in sales of Himal Biscuits in Kathmandu during 2013 is due to the price increase and the entry of new competing brands."

The report then collects sales figures and customer opinion to check whether this hypothesis holds.

Three qualities of a successful interviewer:

1. Good preparation and knowledge: knows the job requirements, reads the candidate's CV, and plans relevant questions.
2. Good listening and questioning skill: listens attentively, asks clear and open questions, and does not dominate the talk.
3. Fairness and courtesy: treats every candidate politely, without bias, and keeps a friendly, relaxed atmosphere.

Organizational communication is the process of sending and receiving messages within an organization and between the organization and the outside world, in order to achieve its objectives. It coordinates people, spreads information, and supports decision-making.

Its three broad categories are internal-operational, external-operational and personal communication.

1. Internal-operational communication

Communication within the organization needed to carry out its work. It flows:

• Downward: from superiors to subordinates (orders, policies, instructions).
• Upward: from employees to management (reports, suggestions, grievances).
• Horizontal/lateral: between people at the same level (coordination, meetings).

Forms include memos, reports, meetings, notices and e-mail.

2. External-operational communication

Communication with people and organizations outside, to carry out the firm's work: customers, suppliers, banks, government, the press and the public. Examples are sales and complaint letters, quotations, orders, advertising, public relations and tax reports. It creates the company's image and goodwill.

3. Personal communication

Informal, social exchange among members that is not part of official work: the grapevine, gossip, friendly talk during breaks. It satisfies social needs, builds relationships and morale, and spreads information quickly, but may spread rumour. Managers should understand and use it wisely rather than ignore it.

Together the three categories keep the organization informed, coordinated and connected to its environment.

The model

Sender (source) -> Encoding -> Message -> Channel/medium -> Decoding -> Receiver -> Feedback -> back to sender, with noise (barriers) possible at every stage.

Hypothetical situation

Mr. Thapa, the Marketing Manager of Himalayan Foods Ltd., wants his sales team to increase sales of a new noodle brand by 15 per cent next quarter.

1. Sender and idea: Mr. Thapa forms the idea that sales targets must be raised.
2. Encoding: He puts the idea into words: "Sales of Brand X must grow 15% in the next quarter; each team member must visit 20 new retailers."
3. Message: The final content, plus tone and body language.
4. Channel: He chooses a written memo and a short meeting with the team.
5. Noise: Loud construction outside the meeting room, or staff thinking the target is unrealistic, may distort the message.
6. Receiver and decoding: The sales staff listen, read the memo and interpret what it means for them.
7. Understanding/response: They understand the target and begin to plan their visits.
8. Feedback: A sales officer asks, "Will we get extra advertising support?" Thapa clarifies and adjusts the plan.

Feedback completes the circle and shows whether the message was received as intended. Communication is therefore a continuous, two-way process, not a single act.

Main principles of clear writing

1. Use familiar words.
2. Use short sentences and paragraphs.
3. Prefer the active voice.
4. Use strong, direct verbs, not camouflaged verbs.
5. Avoid clutter and surplus words (cluttered phrases, rubber stamps).
6. Be specific and concrete.
7. Keep one idea per paragraph and organise logically.
8. Use parallel structure and correct grammar.
9. Write for the reader and edit/revise.

Three in detail

(a) Use familiar words. Choose simple words the reader knows: "use" not "utilise", "start" not "commence", "help" not "facilitate". Unfamiliar jargon slows reading and may confuse. Technical terms are acceptable only when the reader knows them.

(b) Short sentences. Long sentences hide the main point. A good average is 15 to 20 words. Split complicated ideas into separate sentences, and mix lengths for rhythm. Short sentences are easier to understand and remember.

(c) Active voice and strong verbs. In the active voice the doer comes first: "The manager approved the plan" instead of "The plan was approved by the manager". It is shorter, more direct and more lively. Camouflaged verbs (noun forms of verbs) weaken writing: "make a decision" should be "decide" and "give consideration to" should be "consider".

Clear writing saves the reader's time, reduces errors and improves the company's image.

Differences between long and short reports

Format of a short report

REPORT ON (SUBJECT)

To: (name and designation) From: (name and designation) Date: Subject:

1. Introduction: purpose and scope of the report.
2. Body/Findings: facts and data organised under short headings.
3. Conclusion: summary of what was found.
4. Recommendations: actions proposed.

Signature, name and date.

Opinions, attitudes and beliefs are part of the filter of the mind and strongly shape how we send and receive messages.

Opinions are judgments or conclusions based on limited facts ("The new software is slow"). They affect what we say, what we accept, and whether we listen to someone with a different opinion. Firmly held opinions can cause us to reject valid information.

Attitudes are our mental positions or feelings toward people, objects or issues (positive or negative). A positive attitude to the manager makes us receptive to a message, while a negative attitude makes us suspicious, defensive or inattentive, whatever the message says.

Beliefs are deeply held convictions about what is true or right, often from religion, culture, family and experience ("Hard work always brings success"). They are the most stable of the three and are hard to change. Messages that contradict a belief are often rejected or distorted.

Influence on communication

• They affect selective perception: we notice what fits our views.
• They shape interpretation of words and of the speaker's intent.
• They can create barriers, prejudice and conflict.
• They influence the choice of words, tone and channel the sender uses.

A good communicator recognises his or her own filter, respects the receiver's views, and presents the message in a way that is acceptable without distortion.

Ways viewpoints change communication

A viewpoint is the position from which a person sees things, formed by age, education, culture, profession, experience and interests. It changes communication in these ways:

• Perception differs: the same event is seen differently. A manager sees a pay rise as a cost, while an employee sees it as a reward.
• Interpretation of words differs: "profit" or "discipline" mean different things to owners and workers.
• Selective attention: we notice information that matches our viewpoint and ignore the rest.
• Barriers and conflict: different viewpoints cause disagreement unless understood.
• Message design: a good sender studies the receiver's viewpoint and phrases the message from the receiver's side (the "you attitude").

Illustration: A bank clerk and a customer see a "delay" differently, the first as procedure, the second as poor service. Understanding the other's viewpoint prevents misunderstanding.

Application letter

Baneshwor, Kathmandu 30 August 2014

The Manager, Human Resources IT Park Nepal Kathmandu

Subject: Application for the post of Officer

Dear Sir/Madam,

I am applying for the post of Officer advertised in The Kathmandu Post of 25 August 2014. I have recently completed the Bachelor of Information Management (BIM) from Tribhuvan University and believe my skills suit the position.

My studies gave me a strong grounding in database management systems, programming and software development. I also spent three months as an intern at World Link, where I supported database maintenance, helped test applications and worked with a team under deadlines. This experience taught me discipline and customer-oriented problem solving.

My curriculum vitae is enclosed. I would welcome an interview to discuss how I can contribute to IT Park Nepal. I can be reached at 98XXXXXXXX.

Yours faithfully, (Signature) Anil Shrestha

Enclosure: Curriculum vitae

Curriculum Vitae

Anil Shrestha, Baneshwor, Kathmandu | 98XXXXXXXX | anil@example.com

Objective: To work as an Officer using my IT and management skills for the growth of the organization.

Education

• BIM, Tribhuvan University, 2014
• Higher Secondary (+2), Management, 2010
• SLC, 2008

Skills: Database management systems (SQL), programming (Java, C), software development, MS Office, teamwork, communication.

Experience: Intern, World Link Communications, 3 months (database support, testing, user assistance).

Personal details: Nepali citizen, date of birth 1 Baisakh 2045.

References: Available on request.

Nonverbal communication carries more of the message in business because:

• Much of the meaning in face-to-face talk comes from body, voice and setting rather than words.
• It shows true feelings and attitudes, and it is harder to fake than speech.
• It supports, replaces, emphasises or contradicts spoken words.
• It builds first impressions, trust and credibility with clients and colleagues.
• It crosses language barriers in multi-cultural settings.

Five types

(a) Kinesics. Body movement, posture, gestures, eye contact, facial expression. A firm handshake and upright posture show confidence, and avoiding eye contact may suggest dishonesty or nervousness.

(b) Proxemics. Use of space and distance (intimate, personal, social and public). A manager's large office and the seating arrangement show status and openness.

(c) Paralanguage. Vocal qualities: tone, pitch, volume, rate, pauses. A calm, steady voice persuades, while a shaky voice shows nervousness.

(d) Chronemics (time language). Punctuality and handling of time communicate respect and importance. Arriving late for a client meeting sends a negative message.

(e) Appearance and artifacts. Dress, grooming and objects. Formal clothing and a tidy desk create professionalism.

Nonverbal cues should agree with the words, otherwise the receiver trusts the nonverbal signal.

(a) Technique of emphasis in correspondence

Emphasis puts the important idea in front of the reader. Techniques include:

• Position: place key ideas at the beginning or end of a sentence, paragraph or letter.
• Space: give more space and detail to important points.
• Mechanical devices: underlining, bold, capitals, bullets, colour, headings.
• Short, separate sentences or one-sentence paragraphs.
• Repetition and direct statement ("It is essential that...").
• Active voice and strong words. De-emphasis (for bad news) uses the opposite: bury it in the middle, use the passive, and use subordinate clauses.

(b) Sense perception

Sense perception is the process by which we receive information about the world through the five senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell) and organise it into meaning. It is limited and selective: senses reach only a small range of reality (we cannot see ultraviolet light), and the mind filters and interprets using experience, so perception may differ from reality and from person to person.

(d) Proxemics

Proxemics is the study of how people use space and distance in communication. Edward Hall identified four distances: intimate (up to about 45 cm), personal (about 45 cm to 1.2 m), social (about 1.2 to 3.6 m) and public (beyond 3.6 m). Distance, desk position and room layout show relationship, status and comfort, and the acceptable distance varies by culture.

Sign detection is the process by which the senses and brain notice and pick up signals (signs) from the environment, such as a sound, gesture or written symbol, as the first step of perception. Only some signs are detected, depending on attention, interest and the limits of the senses. After detection, the signs are interpreted to give meaning.

Our sensory organs are inadequate because:

• They respond only to a limited range of stimuli (we cannot see ultraviolet or hear very high sounds).
• They are selective: we notice only a small part of what is present.
• They can be deceived by illusions, distance, light and fatigue.
• Reality is infinite and constantly changing, while senses capture a small, momentary piece.
• The brain adds interpretation based on past experience, so we see a version of reality, not reality itself.

Therefore knowledge from the senses is always partial.

Error effect on perception means that mistakes in how we receive and interpret information distort our picture of reality. Errors may arise from limited senses, selective attention, assumptions, prejudice, halo effect, or hasty inference. A mistaken perception leads to wrong judgments, false conclusions and communication failure; for example, mistaking a rumour for fact in a business decision.

Sexist language treats one gender as superior or assumes a role belongs to one sex (for example, "chairman", "salesman", "he" for every manager). It should be avoided in business because:

• It is inaccurate: people in these roles can be of either sex.
• It offends readers and damages goodwill and company image.
• It reinforces stereotypes and discrimination.
• It can have legal and ethical consequences.
• Neutral language ("chairperson", "sales representative", "they") is clearer and more professional.

Stereotyping is forming a fixed, oversimplified and often unfair picture of a whole group of people, such as by nationality, caste, gender or profession, and applying it to every individual in the group without checking facts ("All salespeople are dishonest"). It is a form of two-valued, blocked-mind thinking that distorts perception and creates barriers in communication.

"Rubber stamps" are worn-out, ready-made phrases used automatically without thought, such as "Please find enclosed herewith", "at your earliest convenience", "we beg to acknowledge", "as per your request". They sound mechanical and insincere, add clutter, and should be replaced by fresh, natural wording ("I enclose", "please reply by Friday").

The main methods of presentation are:

1. Impromptu: unprepared, spontaneous speaking.
2. Memorised: the speech is written and learned by heart.
3. Manuscript (read): the speech is read from a full text.
4. Extemporaneous: prepared with an outline or key points and delivered in the speaker's own words (usually best).

Time language (chronemics) is the message conveyed through the use of time: punctuality, keeping people waiting, the length of meetings and deadlines. It shows respect, status and priorities.

Paralanguage is the message conveyed through the voice, apart from the words: tone, pitch, volume, speed, pauses and stress. It shows emotion and attitude.

So time language concerns when and how long, while paralanguage concerns how something is said.

Effective telephone procedures include:

• Answer promptly (within three rings), greet politely, and state your name and organization.
• Speak clearly in a pleasant tone, at a moderate speed.
• Listen carefully and take notes.
• Be courteous and positive; never interrupt.
• Plan outgoing calls: know the purpose and keep the call short.
• Transfer calls properly and tell the caller if you must hold.
• Take accurate messages: caller's name, number, time and message.
• Close politely, confirm action, and thank the caller.

Why failure to communicate change causes error

Reality is not static: prices, markets, technology, people and policies keep changing. Communicators often rely on an old picture ("it was true yesterday, so it is true today"). Failure to update this picture and to inform others about change causes errors:

• Messages based on outdated information (old price lists, former addresses, expired policies) mislead customers and staff.
• Decisions rest on false assumptions, leading to losses.
• Employees who are not told of changes act on old instructions.
• It damages credibility and goodwill.

Business communicators must date their information, update it regularly, and tell all concerned promptly when something changes ("Hari 1990 is not Hari 2014").

Characteristics of reality

1. Reality is infinite: it has endless details, so no description can include everything ("etc." attitude).
2. Reality is constantly changing: everything is a process, never exactly the same twice.
3. Reality is unique: each object, event and person is different; no two are identical (avoid stereotyping).
4. Reality is only partly known: our senses are limited and selective, so we know only an abstraction of it.
5. The map is not the territory: words and mental pictures are not the reality they represent.
6. Reality is interrelated: an event affects many others, so isolated treatment can mislead.

Understanding these makes communicators careful, tentative and flexible, and helps avoid errors.

Role of viewpoints in communicating

A viewpoint is the position or angle from which a person looks at an issue. It is shaped by education, age, profession, culture, family, experience and interests. Its role in communication:

• It determines what we notice and how we interpret a message.
• The same words can be understood differently by sender and receiver.
• Viewpoints can cause disagreement and barriers if not recognised.
• Knowing the receiver's viewpoint lets the sender adapt the message (the "you attitude") and persuade effectively.
• A person who can see from several viewpoints communicates more accurately and fairly.

Example: An owner may see a price rise as essential for profit, while a customer sees it as exploitation.

Influence of opinions, attitudes and beliefs

Opinions are judgments based on limited facts. They colour how we speak and listen, and rigid opinions cause us to reject different information.

Attitudes are our favourable or unfavourable feelings toward people or things. A positive attitude opens the receiver, and a negative attitude makes the person defensive, suspicious or inattentive.

Beliefs are deep convictions about truth and values, often cultural or religious. They are stable and strongly affect acceptance of messages. Messages that contradict beliefs are often rejected.

Together they form the filter of the mind, causing selective perception, distortion and misunderstanding. Effective communicators become aware of their own filters, respect others' views, and keep an open mind.

Qualities (the "Cs" of effective correspondence)

1. Clarity
2. Conciseness
3. Correctness
4. Completeness
5. Courtesy
6. Consideration (you-attitude)
7. Concreteness
8. Coherence/neatness and attractive appearance

Five explained

(a) Clarity. The message should be easily understood in one reading. Use simple words, short sentences, and a logical order, and avoid ambiguity and jargon. A reader should not have to guess the meaning.

(b) Conciseness. Say what is necessary in the fewest words. Remove clutter, repetition and rubber-stamp phrases ("due to the fact that" becomes "because"). It saves the reader's time without losing completeness.

(c) Correctness. Facts, figures, names, dates, grammar, spelling and punctuation must be accurate. Errors damage credibility and may cause financial or legal problems. The tone and format should suit the occasion.

(d) Completeness. The letter should answer all questions and give all information needed for action: who, what, when, where, why and how. Incomplete messages cause delay and extra correspondence.

(e) Courtesy. Be polite, respectful and sincere, even in a complaint or refusal. Reply promptly, say "please" and "thank you," and avoid angry or sarcastic language. Courtesy builds goodwill and a good company image.

These qualities together make correspondence effective in achieving its purpose.

Letter of application

Gyaneshwor, Kathmandu 12 July 2015

The Human Resource Manager Hi-Tech Software Developer New Baneshwor, Kathmandu

Subject: Application for the post of System Manager

Dear Sir/Madam,

I wish to apply for the post of System Manager at Hi-Tech Software Developer. I believe my qualifications and five years of experience fit the position.

I completed my Master's in Information Management in 2010 and have since worked at Ncell, one of the country's leading communication companies. I started as a Systems Officer and am now Senior Systems Executive. My responsibilities include managing servers and networks used by many users, leading a team of five technicians, planning system upgrades, maintaining data security and backup, and coordinating with vendors. During my service I helped reduce system downtime by about 30 per cent and completed several projects on time and within budget.

I am looking for broader managerial responsibility, which I believe your growing company can offer. I am confident that my technical skill, leadership and commitment can contribute to the company's goals.

My resume is enclosed, and I would welcome an interview at your convenience. I can be reached on 98XXXXXXXX.

Yours faithfully, (Signature) Suresh Adhikari

Enclosure: Resume

Resume

SURESH ADHIKARI Gyaneshwor, Kathmandu | Phone: 98XXXXXXXX | Email: suresh@example.com

Career objective: To work as System Manager and use my technical and leadership skills for the success of the company.

Work experience

• Senior Systems Executive, Ncell, Kathmandu (2013 to date): manage IT infrastructure, lead a 5-member team, plan upgrades and security.
• Systems Officer, Ncell (2010 to 2013): maintained servers, networks, user support, database administration.

Education

• Master's in Information Management, 2010
• Bachelor's degree in Computer/Information Management, 2007
• Higher Secondary, 2003

Skills: Network and server administration, database management, information security, project management, team leadership, communication.

Achievements: Reduced system downtime by 30%; completed network expansion project on schedule; awarded best employee of the year, 2013.

Personal details: Nepali citizen; languages: Nepali and English.

References: Available on request.

Public speaking is the delivery of a planned oral message by a speaker to a live audience, for the purpose of informing, persuading, motivating or entertaining. A formal speech is carefully prepared and delivered on an official occasion, such as a conference or a ceremony.

Techniques for effective formal speeches

1. Know the audience and purpose. Find out who the listeners are, what they know and want, and choose content, language and examples to suit them.
2. Prepare and organise. Research the topic, make an outline, and arrange the speech into an introduction (capture attention, state purpose), body (main points with support) and conclusion (summary, call to action).
3. Rehearse. Practise aloud several times, time the speech, and refine it, possibly before a friend or mirror. Rehearsal reduces nervousness and errors.
4. Use voice and body language. Control volume, pace, pitch and pauses; maintain eye contact; use natural gestures and good posture; dress appropriately.
5. Use visual aids and examples. Simple slides, charts and short stories make ideas clearer and memorable. Do not overload them.

Other helpful techniques are handling nervousness through deep breathing, keeping to time, using humour carefully, inviting questions, and ending with a strong conclusion.

Importance of nonverbal communication in oral communication

• It reinforces the spoken words, making them more convincing.
• It expresses feelings and attitudes that words do not state.
• It substitutes for words when speech is impossible (a nod, a gesture).
• It regulates conversation (turn-taking, signs of agreement or interest).
• It is considered more reliable: when words and nonverbal signals conflict, listeners believe the nonverbal ones.
• It creates first impressions and relationships.

Classification

Nonverbal communication may be classed as body language (kinesics), space (proxemics), voice (paralanguage), time (chronemics), touch (haptics), and appearance/objects.

(a) Kinesics. Facial expressions, gestures, posture, eye contact and handshake: an open posture shows interest and crossed arms show resistance.

(b) Proxemics. Use of space and distance: intimate, personal, social and public zones. Standing too close may be seen as aggressive in business.

(c) Paralanguage. Tone, pitch, volume, rate and pauses, which show emotion and sincerity.

(d) Chronemics. Use of time: punctuality, waiting time and pace of speech convey respect and importance.

(e) Appearance and artifacts. Dress, grooming and surroundings show professionalism, status and personality.

Effective speakers keep their nonverbal signals consistent with their words.

Interpretation is the process of explaining the real meaning and significance of the collected and analysed data, linking the findings to the problem, the objectives and the hypothesis, and drawing conclusions from them. Analysis only arranges the data; interpretation tells the reader what the data means and what should be done. The fundamentals (guidelines) are:

1. Relate the findings to the problem and objectives - every interpretation must answer the problem stated in the report.
2. Be objective and free from bias - the writer's personal opinion must not distort the facts.
3. Base conclusions on sufficient and reliable data - generalisations from a small or doubtful sample are misleading.
4. Separate fact from inference - state clearly what the data shows and what is only deduced from it.
5. Consider all relevant evidence, including contrary evidence - ignoring data that does not fit the hypothesis is dishonest.
6. Distinguish correlation from causation - two things occurring together does not prove that one causes the other.
7. Use clear, simple language, tables and charts to make the meaning easy to grasp.
8. Check for errors, limitations and alternative explanations before concluding.

Detailed discussion of two fundamentals

(a) Objectivity. The interpreter must let the data speak. Personal likes, the wish to please the management, or a pre-formed belief must not colour the conclusion. For example, if a survey shows that 60% of employees are dissatisfied with the canteen, the report cannot say "most employees are generally satisfied" merely because the manager hopes so. Objectivity gives the report credibility, and decision-makers can rely on it. It is achieved by using verifiable data, neutral wording and by acknowledging limitations.

(b) Sufficiency and reliability of data (avoiding wrong generalisation). An interpretation is only as good as its evidence. A conclusion about all customers of a bank drawn from ten customers in one branch is unsound. The writer must check that the sample was large and representative, that the data was collected properly and recently, and that the methods of analysis were suitable. Where the data is weak, the writer should qualify the statement ("the data suggests...") rather than claim certainty. This protects the organisation from wrong decisions based on poor evidence.

(a) External operational communication

It is communication between the organisation and outside parties such as customers, suppliers, government offices, banks, the media and the public, carried out in the day-to-day running of the business. Examples are sales letters, quotations, orders, invoices, advertisements, complaints and replies, and public relations messages. Its purpose is to carry out business transactions and to build goodwill and a favourable image. It is usually formal, written or spoken with courtesy, accurate and persuasive, because it represents the whole organisation to the outside world.

(c) AIDA concept in sales letters

AIDA is a four-step plan for persuasive writing:

• Attention - open with a striking statement, question, offer or benefit that makes the reader want to read on.
• Interest - develop the reader's curiosity by describing the product's features and showing how it relates to the reader's needs.
• Desire - convince the reader through benefits, proof, testimonials, samples or guarantees, so that the reader wants the product.
• Action - end by telling the reader exactly what to do (order, call, visit) and make it easy, often with a deadline or incentive.

A letter following AIDA moves the reader smoothly from noticing the message to acting on it.

Symbols (words, gestures, signs, pictures, colours) stand for things, ideas or feelings, so communication depends on them. Since we cannot pass our thoughts directly to another mind, we encode them into symbols which the receiver decodes. Without commonly understood symbols, ideas cannot be shared, recorded or passed on, which makes symbols the basic tools of all communication.

Work goals of an institution are the specific results or targets the organisation sets itself to achieve through the work of its members, such as profit, sales growth, quality service, customer satisfaction or market share. They give direction to employees, and business communication is used to explain, coordinate and achieve them.

The major determinants of meaning are:

• The symbols (words) used - their denotation and connotation.
• The sender's experience, background and intention - what the sender means by the symbol.
• The receiver's experience, culture and expectations - the interpretation the receiver gives.
• The context - the situation, relationship, time and place in which the message occurs.
• Non-verbal cues - tone, gestures and expressions that accompany the words.

Meaning is therefore not in the words alone but in the people using them.

"Allness" is the false assumption that one knows or has said everything about a person, thing or situation, so that no more can be added. It is a malfunction of communication because it closes the mind to new information and encourages over-generalisation, such as "All managers are selfish". Since no one can know everything, the cure is to remember that there is always more to be said, and to use qualifiers like "some" and "so far as I know".

Revised sentence: Good secretaries screen all telephone calls for their bosses and arrange their schedules.

Other acceptable forms: "A good secretary screens all telephone calls and arranges the manager's schedule." The gender-specific pronouns "her" and "his" are removed by using the plural or by dropping the pronouns, so the sentence no longer assumes that secretaries are women and bosses are men.

Two contexts in communication are:

1. Physical (situational) context - the actual setting: the place, time, noise, distance and surroundings in which communication occurs.
2. Social/cultural context - the relationship between the participants, their status, customs, norms and shared background that affect how a message is interpreted.

(Verbal context, the words surrounding a particular word, and psychological context are also recognised.)

In my opinion connotation can do both, but it is more risky than helpful in business communication.

Help: Connotation (the emotional or suggestive meaning of a word beyond its dictionary meaning) adds colour, feeling and persuasive force. Calling a product "economical" rather than "cheap" creates a positive impression and helps in advertising and sales letters.

Hinder: Connotations differ from person to person and culture to culture, so the receiver may read a different feeling from what the sender intended, causing misunderstanding or offence. In reports and instructions, where precision is vital, connotative words create confusion.

Hence the writer should choose words with the receiver's likely reaction in mind: use connotation deliberately for persuasion, and prefer denotative words where accuracy matters.

Nonverbal communication is the exchange of messages without using words, through body movements (kinesics), facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, posture, touch, use of space (proxemics), time, tone of voice, appearance and silence. It often shows the real feelings of the sender and supports, repeats, replaces or contradicts the spoken message.

The major cause of miscommunication is that the receiver gives a meaning to the message different from the one the sender intended. This happens because meaning lies in people, not in words: the sender and receiver have different experiences, backgrounds, assumptions and perceptions, and so they interpret the same symbols differently. Poor language, noise and lack of feedback add to the problem.

Communication is the process of exchanging information, ideas or feelings between a sender and a receiver so that they share a common understanding. The process passes through the following stages.

1. Ideation (idea formation): The sender decides what he or she wants to communicate. The idea arises from a need, a situation or an experience, and its quality determines the quality of the message.
2. Encoding: The idea is converted into symbols such as words, pictures, gestures or numbers. The sender must choose symbols that the receiver can understand.
3. Message: The encoded idea becomes the actual message, written, spoken or non-verbal, that is to be transmitted.
4. Channel (medium) selection and transmission: The sender chooses a suitable medium - a letter, e-mail, telephone, meeting or memo - and sends the message. The choice depends on urgency, cost, formality and the receiver.
5. Receiving: The message reaches the receiver, who must be ready and attentive to receive it. Noise or distraction at this point can disturb the message.
6. Decoding: The receiver interprets the symbols and tries to understand the sender's meaning. Understanding depends on the receiver's knowledge, culture and experience.
7. Acceptance and action/response: The receiver accepts or rejects the message and acts on it, for example by doing the task, replying or storing the information.
8. Feedback: The receiver's response is returned to the sender, who then knows whether the message was understood as intended. Feedback makes communication a two-way, circular process and allows corrections.

Throughout all stages, noise (physical, psychological, semantic or technical barriers) may distort the message. A sender who understands these stages can plan messages more carefully and reduce misunderstandings.

Meaning is the idea or understanding that a person attaches to a symbol. It is not contained in the words themselves but is created in the minds of the sender and the receiver. The question of meaning is therefore complex and depends on several factors.

1. Conditioning. People learn to respond to symbols through their upbringing, culture, education and experience. A word like "democracy" or "boss" brings different feelings to different people because they have been conditioned differently. Two people never have exactly the same conditioning, so exact transfer of meaning is difficult.

2. Representation. A word is only a representation of a thing, not the thing itself ("the map is not the territory"). Because symbols only stand for reality, they can be incomplete or inaccurate, and the receiver may picture something different from what the sender has in mind.

3. Abstraction. Language works by leaving out details. Higher-level words like "vehicle" or "employee" cover many different objects and are less precise than "a red Honda motorcycle" or "the accountant, Ram". The more abstract the word, the greater the chance of different interpretations. Writers should move down the abstraction ladder and use specific examples when accuracy is needed.

4. Context. The same word means different things in different surroundings. "Charge" means a price, an accusation or an attack, depending on the situation. The physical, social, cultural and verbal context helps the receiver select the right meaning, and ignoring context causes misunderstanding.

5. Encoding. The sender must put his or her idea into suitable symbols. Poor choice of words, tone or format may fail to express the intended meaning, so the sender should select words that the receiver will understand and that suit the occasion.

6. Decoding. The receiver interprets the symbols using his or her own knowledge, feelings and expectations. The receiver may add or lose meaning, so the decoded message can differ from the encoded one.

Conclusion. Because meaning is shaped by conditioning, representation, abstraction, context and the processes of encoding and decoding, "meanings are in people, not in words". A good communicator therefore uses clear, specific, familiar language, considers the receiver and the context, and seeks feedback to check that the intended meaning has been received.

The filter of the mind is the mental screen through which every person receives, selects and interprets information. Out of the huge amount of information around us, we notice and understand only part of it, and the filter shapes what we accept, change or reject. Because each person's filter is different, the same message can be understood differently by different people, and this is a major source of miscommunication.

The filter has three major categories.

1. Information (knowledge) filter. This consists of what a person already knows, his education, training and experience. People understand new information in the light of what they already know. A person with a technical background will understand a technical report easily, while another may not. If the receiver lacks the knowledge, the message is misunderstood or ignored. The sender should therefore adapt the language and level of detail to the receiver's knowledge.

2. Physical (sensory/physiological) filter. This relates to the condition of the senses and body. Poor eyesight or hearing, tiredness, hunger, illness or physical discomfort reduces a person's ability to receive a message correctly. Noise, poor lighting or a crowded room also act as physical filters. A tired listener at the end of a long meeting will miss a good deal of what is said.

3. Psychological (emotional and attitudinal) filter. This consists of the person's feelings, attitudes, values, beliefs, prejudices, fears and expectations. People tend to hear what they want or expect to hear. A manager who dislikes an employee may treat even a fair suggestion with suspicion. Stress, anger, cultural bias and past experiences all colour the way a message is interpreted.

Conclusion. To reduce the effect of filters, the communicator should know the audience, use clear and simple language, choose a suitable time and place, be sensitive to the receiver's feelings and ask for feedback to confirm understanding.

Paragraph unity means that all sentences in a paragraph deal with one single idea, the main idea, usually stated in a topic sentence. Every other sentence supports, explains or illustrates that idea; nothing irrelevant is included. A unified paragraph is easy to follow because the reader knows what it is about.

Details needed in effective writing

1. Topic sentence. A clear sentence, usually at the beginning, which states the central idea and tells the reader what to expect.
2. Supporting details. Facts, figures, examples, reasons, illustrations and explanations that develop the topic sentence. Without them the paragraph is only a claim.
3. Specific and concrete words. Exact words ("sales rose by 12% in Baisakh") are better than vague ones ("sales improved a lot"), because they are clearer and more convincing.
4. Coherence (logical order and links). Sentences should be arranged in a sensible order - time, importance, cause and effect, general to particular - and joined by transitional words such as "therefore", "however", "for example" and by repeated key words.
5. Emphasis. Important points are placed at the beginning or end of the paragraph, given more space or highlighted by the choice of words.
6. Appropriate length. Paragraphs should be neither too long, which tires the reader, nor too short, which leaves the idea undeveloped. Normally three to eight sentences are suitable.
7. Conclusion or linking sentence. The last sentence may summarise the idea or lead into the next paragraph.
8. Correctness and clarity. Correct grammar, spelling, punctuation and a suitable tone make the writing professional.

Effective writing thus consists of paragraphs that are unified, well supported, logically arranged and linked, so that the reader understands the message quickly and accurately.

REPORT

To: The Director, Human Resource, Paper Products, Inc., Kathmandu From: [Name], Training Analyst Date: [Date] Subject: Advantages and disadvantages of e-learning and its suitability for employee training

1. Introduction

Training is vital for keeping employees' skills up to date. Traditional classroom training requires travel, time away from work and trainers' fees. E-learning, which delivers training through the internet, computers and mobile devices, is now widely used as an alternative. This report examines whether Paper Products, Inc. should invest time and money in e-learning for its employees.

2. Statement of the problem

Paper Products, Inc. needs to train its staff regularly, but classroom training is costly and disturbs production schedules. The problem is to find out whether e-learning provides an effective and economical way of training, and whether the company should invest in it.

3. Hypothesis

E-learning is more cost-effective and flexible than classroom training and gives equally effective learning, so investing in it will benefit Paper Products, Inc. (This will be tested against the evidence collected.)

4. Methodology

• Secondary data: study of books, journals and reports on e-learning and its use in similar companies.
• Primary data: a questionnaire to a sample of employees from each department, and interviews with department heads and the training officer.
• Cost comparison of the present training expenses with the estimated e-learning expenses.
• A pilot e-learning course with a small group, followed by evaluation of results.
• Analysis of the data using tables, percentages and comparison.

5. Factors to be studied

• Cost of software, equipment, internet, and development of courses versus the present cost of training
• Employees' computer skills, interest and access to technology
• Quality and effectiveness of learning, and the results of tests
• Flexibility of time and place, and effect on working hours
• Internet reliability and technical support in Nepal
• Interaction, motivation and feedback
• Time needed to implement

6. Broad outline of the report

1. Introduction
2. Statement of problem, hypothesis and methodology
3. Advantages of e-learning (lower travel cost, flexibility, self-paced, consistent content, quick updating)
4. Disadvantages of e-learning (high initial cost, lack of personal interaction, technical problems, need for self-discipline, unsuitability for practical skills)
5. Analysis of the survey and cost data
6. Conclusions
7. Recommendation on whether, and in what form, to invest (for example, a blended approach)
8. Appendices (questionnaire, cost tables)

Meaning. Bringing writing to life with words means using lively, vivid and expressive language so that the writing is interesting, forceful and easy to remember rather than dull and lifeless. Lively words attract and hold the reader's attention and make the message clearer and more persuasive.

Techniques

1. Use strong, active verbs instead of weak verbs with abstract nouns.
2. Use the active voice rather than the passive.
3. Use specific and concrete words instead of vague, abstract ones.
4. Avoid camouflaged verbs (hidden verbs turned into nouns).
5. Use the right amount of modifiers and avoid clichés and jargon.
6. Use figures of speech, examples and comparisons (metaphor, simile, analogy).
7. Vary sentence length and structure, and keep sentences short and direct.
8. Use a conversational, personal tone with "you" and "we".

Explanation of one technique - strong active verbs

The verb is the engine of a sentence. A weak verb ("is", "has", "make") needs extra words to carry the meaning, while a strong verb does the work alone. Compare:

• Weak: "The manager made a decision to make improvements in the system."
• Strong: "The manager decided to improve the system."

The second sentence is shorter, more direct and more energetic. Similarly, "The sales team achieved the target" is livelier than "The target was achieved by the sales team". Choosing verbs such as launch, build, reduce, persuade, achieve instead of do, make, get gives the reader a clear picture of the action, and the writing becomes concise, vigorous and more convincing.

A formal speech is a planned address delivered to an audience on an occasion such as a conference, meeting or ceremony. To make it effective and persuasive, the speaker should follow these guidelines.

1. Prepare thoroughly

• Know the purpose: to inform, persuade, motivate or entertain.
• Analyse the audience (age, knowledge, expectations, attitude) and the occasion, and adapt the content to them.
• Research the topic well so that you speak with authority.

2. Organise the speech

• Introduction: attract attention with a story, question, quotation or fact, and state the topic.
• Body: arrange 2-4 main points in logical order, each supported by facts, statistics, examples and illustrations.
• Conclusion: summarise the main points and end with a strong closing or call to action.

3. Be persuasive

• Use logic (facts and reasoning), emotion (stories and values) and credibility (honesty and competence).
• Stress benefits to the audience and answer likely objections.
• Use repetition for emphasis and examples to make ideas concrete.

4. Use clear and simple language

• Short sentences, familiar words and a conversational tone; avoid jargon.
• Use pauses and signposts ("first", "next", "finally").

5. Delivery

• Maintain eye contact and use natural gestures and good posture.
• Control the voice - volume, pitch, pace and pauses - and speak clearly.
• Dress appropriately and look confident.

6. Use visual aids wisely - slides, charts or models should be simple, large and relevant.

7. Practise and manage time - rehearse aloud, keep within the allotted time, and manage nervousness through preparation and deep breathing.

8. Interact and handle questions - watch the audience's reaction, adjust where necessary and answer questions politely and honestly.

A speech that is well planned, audience-centred, supported with evidence and confidently delivered is more likely to be effective and to persuade the audience.

(a) Every reality is uncommon

This principle says that no two situations, persons or events are exactly alike: each reality is unique, because each person has different experiences, perceptions and surroundings, and things also change with time. Calling things by the same name hides their differences (a customer, an employee, a "problem"). In business communication this means a communicator should avoid stereotyping and treat each customer, case or situation as individual, adapting the message to it rather than using ready-made, identical responses. Recognising uniqueness helps us to avoid overgeneralisation and to give a personal, more effective message.

(b) Kinesics

Kinesics is the study of body movements as a form of non-verbal communication. It includes facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, posture, head movements, walking style and handshakes. For example, a smile signals friendliness, crossed arms may show defensiveness, avoiding eye contact may suggest dishonesty or shyness, and an upright posture shows confidence. Body language can support, contradict or replace spoken words and often reveals true feelings. Its meaning varies with culture, so it should be read with the context and several cues together.

The elements of the communication environment are:

1. Physical environment - place, setting, furniture, lighting, temperature, noise
2. Time - the timing and duration of the communication
3. Social environment - relationships, status and roles of the participants
4. Cultural environment - values, customs and beliefs
5. Psychological (emotional) environment - mood, attitudes and feelings
6. Organisational environment - structure, climate and policies
7. Technological environment - media and tools used

The communication cycle is the circular process in which a sender encodes an idea and sends it through a channel to a receiver, who decodes it and returns feedback to the sender. The sender then becomes a receiver and the receiver a sender, so communication continues as a cycle: idea - encoding - transmission - receiving - decoding - feedback. Noise may affect any stage.

The main function of signs is to represent or stand for things, ideas or feelings, so that meaning can be transmitted from one person to another. Signs (words, gestures, symbols, signals) carry the message in the communication process; the sender encodes meaning in signs and the receiver decodes it from them.

I would give priority to the primary goal, that is, getting the intended result of the letter, for example making the reader understand the message and take the desired action, such as buying, paying or replying. A business letter is written for a purpose, and if it fails to achieve it, the letter is of no use. At the same time I would keep the secondary goal of goodwill (a courteous, positive tone), because it keeps the relationship with the reader and supports the main aim in the long run.

Camouflaged verbs are verbs hidden in noun form, making sentences wordy. Two examples:

1. "We made a decision to close the branch." Better: "We decided to close the branch."
2. "The committee will conduct an investigation of the complaint." Better: "The committee will investigate the complaint."

The essentials of business letter writing are:

1. Clarity - the purpose and message are clear and easy to understand.
2. Conciseness - brief and to the point without losing completeness.
3. Completeness - all necessary facts are given.
4. Correctness - accurate facts, grammar, spelling and figures.
5. Courtesy - a polite, respectful tone and the "you" attitude.
6. Consideration - the reader's needs and viewpoint are kept in mind.
7. Concreteness - specific facts and figures.
8. Proper layout - a standard format with letterhead, date, inside address, salutation, subject, body, complimentary close and signature, and neat presentation.

The main delivery methods in public speaking are:

1. Impromptu - speaking on the spot without preparation.
2. Extemporaneous - speaking from an outline or notes after preparation; the wording is spontaneous. It is the most commonly recommended method.
3. Manuscript (reading) - reading a fully written text word for word, used for exact, official statements.
4. Memorised - delivering a text learned by heart.

The prefatory parts are the parts that come before the main body of the report:

1. Cover page
2. Title page
3. Letter of transmittal (or authorisation letter)
4. Acknowledgement
5. Table of contents
6. List of tables and figures (illustrations)
7. Abstract or executive summary

Race, ethnicity and religion should not be listed because they are irrelevant to a candidate's ability to do the job, and including them may lead to discrimination or bias in selection. Equal opportunity principles and laws discourage employers from considering them, and employers should select people on the basis of qualifications, skills and experience. Leaving them out keeps the resume professional and protects the applicant from prejudice.

Personal communication is the exchange of messages, feelings and ideas between individuals on personal matters, not directly related to business or organisational purposes, for example, talks between friends, family members or colleagues about private concerns. It is usually informal and aims at social interaction and building relationships.

Reality in business communication

Reality means the actual facts, events, persons and situations that exist in the world, as distinct from the words or maps we use to describe them. In business communication, reality is the real situation of the customer, employee, product or market that the message is about. However, we never perceive reality completely: we see it through our own senses, experiences and language, and the symbols we use are only representations ("the map is not the territory"). Reality is also constantly changing, and different people perceive it differently. A good business communicator therefore bases messages on observed facts, checks assumptions, and updates information, rather than relying on labels, stereotypes or out-of-date impressions.

The principle of uniqueness

The principle of uniqueness states that every reality - each person, customer, transaction or situation - is unique and is never exactly the same as another, even though the same word may be applied to both. Language tends to group different things under a single label ("customer", "complaint", "employee"), and this hides important differences.

Exploiting it in a business setting

1. Personalise the message. Address each customer by name and refer to his or her particular needs and situation, rather than sending a standard, impersonal letter. People respond better to messages that show attention to them.
2. Avoid stereotyping. Do not assume that all employees from a department, or all customers from a region, think or behave alike. Listen to the individual and treat each case on its merits.
3. Segment and target markets. Recognising that customers differ allows a company to design different products, prices and advertisements for different groups.
4. Customise products and services. Offering tailor-made solutions, custom orders or special packages gives a competitive advantage.
5. Use unique selling points. Emphasise what is unique about the firm's product or service compared with competitors.
6. Manage people individually. A manager who understands that each employee has different abilities, motives and problems can assign work, motivate and give feedback better.
7. Use specific details and dates. Distinguishing situations by index terms (for example, "customer 1, customer 2" or "branch A, branch B") avoids careless generalisations.

By accepting that each reality is unique, a business improves customer satisfaction, builds loyalty, avoids misunderstanding and makes better decisions.

Knowledge is the information, understanding and skill that a person gains through learning and experience. It is the base of every communication, because we can only communicate about what we know.

Ways of attaining knowledge

1. Experience (empirical method). Learning directly through personal involvement and the senses, for example by doing a job or dealing with customers. It is real but limited to what one personally meets.
2. Authority. Accepting knowledge from experts, teachers, books, manuals, the government or senior colleagues. It is quick and wide-ranging, but depends on the reliability of the source.
3. Reasoning (logic). Reaching conclusions by deduction (from general principles to particular cases) or induction (from particular cases to general rules).
4. Intuition. Sudden insight or "gut feeling" based on accumulated experience, useful but uncertain.
5. Scientific method. Observation, forming a hypothesis, testing by experiment or data collection, and drawing conclusions. It is the most reliable method.
6. Tradition and custom. Beliefs and practices handed down over time.
7. Communication and education. Learning through reading, listening, training, discussion, the media and the internet.

Role of knowledge in day-to-day communication in an organisation

1. Gives content to messages. Employees need knowledge of products, policies and procedures to write and speak accurately and convincingly.
2. Improves understanding. Shared knowledge between sender and receiver reduces misunderstandings, because both interpret the symbols in the same way.
3. Supports decision-making. Managers need correct and up-to-date information to plan, direct and solve problems.
4. Builds confidence and credibility. A person who knows the subject speaks and writes with authority and earns trust from colleagues and customers.
5. Helps in choosing the medium and style. Knowledge of the audience, culture and situation helps the communicator to adapt the message.
6. Facilitates coordination and teamwork. When employees share information, activities are coordinated and duplication and errors are avoided.
7. Aids customer service and public relations. Knowledgeable staff respond to customers' questions quickly and correctly, improving the company's image.
8. Promotes organisational learning and innovation. Sharing knowledge through meetings, reports and intranet turns individual learning into organisational strength.

Thus knowledge is the raw material of communication: the better the knowledge, the clearer, more accurate and more effective the communication in the organisation.

Principles of clear writing

Clear writing means that the reader understands the message at once, without effort and without misunderstanding. The main principles are:

1. Know the purpose and the reader - decide what you want the reader to know or do, and write at the reader's level of knowledge.
2. Use simple, familiar words - prefer short, common words to long or technical ones, and explain unavoidable jargon.
3. Keep sentences short and direct - about 15-20 words on average, one main idea per sentence.
4. Use the active voice and strong verbs - "The manager approved the plan" is clearer than "The plan was approved by the manager". Avoid camouflaged verbs.
5. Be specific and concrete - give exact facts, figures, dates and examples instead of vague generalities.
6. Be concise - cut unnecessary words, repetition and padding.
7. Organise logically - put ideas in a sensible order, with the main point early.
8. Use parallel structure and linking words to show relationships between ideas.
9. Use headings, lists and white space to help the eye follow the text.
10. Revise and proofread for grammar, spelling and punctuation errors.

Being cautious in paragraph design

A paragraph is a group of sentences developing one idea. Writers should be careful in the following ways.

1. Unity: Keep to one idea only; remove sentences that do not relate to it.
2. Topic sentence: State the main idea clearly, normally at the start, so the reader knows what to expect (in bad-news messages it may be placed after a buffer).
3. Adequate development: Support the idea with facts, examples, reasons and details so the paragraph is not thin.
4. Coherence: Arrange sentences in a logical order (time, importance, cause-effect, general to specific) and link them with transitions such as "however", "therefore", "for example".
5. Suitable length: Avoid very long paragraphs that tire the reader, and very short ones that look disconnected. Normally 3-8 sentences are suitable; business writing favours shorter paragraphs.
6. Emphasis: Place key information at the beginning or end where it is noticed most.
7. Variety and rhythm: Vary sentence length and form to avoid monotony.
8. Consistency: Keep the same tense, person and tone through the paragraph.
9. Visual appearance: Use white space between paragraphs so the page looks inviting.

By following these principles and taking care in the design of paragraphs, writers produce text which is easy to read, understand and remember.

[Dealer's letterhead and address]

[Date]

Mr. Guru Prasad Gnywali [Address]

Dear Mr. Gnywali:

Subject: Your LG refrigerator purchased on 4 August 2017

Thank you for writing to us about the refrigerator you bought last week. We are sorry that it has not given you the performance you expected, and we appreciate the opportunity to look into the matter.

As soon as we received your letter, our technician examined the unit. He found that the problem was not a manufacturing defect but a result of handling. For example, the refrigerator appears to have been connected without a voltage stabilizer and without being left upright for the recommended time before starting, and the door seals show signs of being disturbed. These conditions are outside the warranty, which covers manufacturing faults only. For this reason we are not able to refund the price.

However, we want you to be satisfied with your purchase. We therefore offer you the services of our trained technician, who will visit your home at a time convenient to you, correct the problem, and show you the correct way of installing and using the refrigerator, so that it will give you years of trouble-free use. The first visit will be without charge to you.

We have more than 25,000 satisfied customers, and we would like you to be one of them. Please call me at [phone number] to fix a time for the visit.

Yours sincerely,

[Name] Proprietor/Manager [Name of dealership]

MEMORANDUM

To: All Department Heads (Production, Marketing, Finance, Purchase, Human Resource) From: Managing Director Date: [Date] Subject: Request for inputs on expansion into women's fashion clothing and footwear

Our company has so far concentrated on men's casual wear. Market studies show a growing demand for fashionable clothing for women and for footwear for both men and women. We are therefore planning to enter these new lines, and I would like your help in making the plan succeed.

Please send me your suggestions on the following by [date]:

• Marketing: the target customers, the competition, pricing and distribution, and promotion plans.
• Production: the machinery, skills, raw materials and layout needed for ladies' wear and footwear, and the production capacity and time.
• Purchase: reliable sources of fabric, leather and other materials, and the expected costs.
• Finance: the investment required, expected returns and the sources of finance.
• Human Resource: recruitment and training of designers, tailors and cobblers, and the staffing cost.
• Design/Quality: the product range, seasonal trends and quality standards.

Please also mention any risks you see. We will discuss the suggestions at a meeting on [date, time, place]. Your short written reply by that date will be appreciated. Thank you for your cooperation.

[Signature]

REPORT ON THE INDUSTRIAL VISIT TO IT PARK, BANEPA

To: The Program Coordinator, [Name of programme], [College] From: [Name], [Semester/Roll No.] Date: [Date] Subject: Report on the industrial visit and workshop at IT Park, Banepa

1. Introduction

As part of our programme, a group of students visited the IT Park at Banepa on [date], accompanied by [teacher]. The purpose was to see information technology in practice and to learn about its prospects and challenges. This report describes what I observed and learnt.

2. Observations during the visit

• We toured the facilities and saw the infrastructure, such as servers, networking and data facilities.
• We saw demonstrations of advanced technology and innovations on screen, including software development, data processing and digital services.
• The staff explained how companies work in the park and how the park supports start-ups.

3. The workshop

A workshop was held on the prospects and challenges of IT.

Prospects: growing job opportunities in software, outsourcing and e-commerce; chances of self-employment and start-ups; government support for digitalization; and a wide international market.

Challenges: shortage of skilled manpower; unreliable power and internet; limited investment and research; cyber-security risks; the brain drain of skilled people; and the need to update skills continuously.

4. What I learnt

I understood the practical use of the topics we study in class, the importance of teamwork, communication and up-to-date skills, and saw possible career fields for management students in IT-related business.

5. Conclusion and recommendations

The visit was informative and useful. I recommend that the college (a) arrange such visits every year, (b) arrange short IT skill training, and (c) invite IT professionals for guest sessions.

I thank the coordinator and the faculty for the opportunity.

[Signature] [Name]

Definition

Nonverbal communication is the transmission of messages without using words, through body movements, facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, voice qualities, use of space and time, appearance, and objects. It conveys feelings and attitudes, supports or contradicts the spoken message, and is often more believable than words.

Types of nonverbal communication

1. Kinesics (body language). Movement of the body: facial expressions (a smile, a frown), eye contact, gestures (pointing, waving), posture (upright or slouched), head nods and handshakes. Direct eye contact shows interest and honesty; crossed arms may show defensiveness.

2. Paralanguage (vocal cues). How something is said and not what is said: tone, pitch, volume, speed, pauses, stress and silence. "Thank you" said warmly or sarcastically carries different meanings.

3. Proxemics (space language). The use of personal and physical space: intimate, personal, social and public distances. Seating arrangement and office size convey relationships and status.

4. Chronemics (time language). The use of time: punctuality, waiting time and the time allotted to a person. Being late to an interview conveys disinterest; keeping a person waiting may signal higher status.

5. Haptics (touch). Handshakes, pats on the back, hugs. Meaning depends on culture, relationship and context.

6. Appearance and artefacts. Dress, grooming, hairstyle, jewellery, and the look of documents or an office. They give a first impression about a person's professionalism.

7. Colour, symbols and environment. The colours, lighting, layout and decoration of a place affect mood and send messages about the organization.

A communicator should interpret nonverbal signals in clusters and in their cultural context, and should make sure they are consistent with the words.

a. Conversational style

Conversational style is writing or speaking in a natural, friendly way, as if talking to the reader. It uses simple, familiar words, short sentences, contractions where suitable, personal pronouns ("you" and "we") and a warm tone. It makes business messages easy to read, builds goodwill and avoids stiff, old-fashioned expressions such as "enclosed herewith". It should still be courteous, correct and not slangy.

b. Map-territory relationship

Alfred Korzybski said "the map is not the territory". A word, description or mental picture (the map) is not the thing it represents (the territory). A map leaves out details, may be out of date, and may be wrong. In the same way our words and ideas never give the whole of reality. Communicators should remember that what they say and think is only a representation, check it against facts, and update it, so that they avoid confusing the name with the thing and avoid misunderstanding.

c. Two-valued thinking

Two-valued thinking (bifurcation) is the tendency to see only two extremes, such as good or bad, right or wrong, black or white, win or lose, and to ignore the middle range. It is a malfunction because most situations have many shades. It leads to rigid views and conflict. The remedy is to think in degrees ("more or less") and to look for alternatives.

d. Language abstraction ladder

S. I. Hayakawa's abstraction ladder shows how language moves from the concrete to the abstract. At the bottom is the actual object (this cow, "Bessie"); above it come general terms by leaving out details (cow, livestock, farm assets, asset, wealth). The higher the level, the more details are omitted and the greater the risk of misunderstanding. Good communicators move up and down the ladder, using specific words for clarity and abstract words only for general ideas.

Business communication is the exchange of information, ideas and messages, within and outside a business organization, to carry out its business and achieve its goals. It includes internal communication (memos, meetings, reports among employees) and external communication (with customers, suppliers, banks, government and the public), in written, oral and non-verbal forms.

Correct form: "Culturally we are superior to other nations."

The adjective "superior" is followed by the preposition "to", not "than". (The same applies to inferior, senior, junior and prefer.)

A malfunction of communication is a breakdown in the way people use language and their minds to interpret reality, so that the message received differs from the message intended. It arises from habits of thinking and speaking, such as allness, failure to discriminate, polarization, static evaluation and confusing facts with inferences, and it leads to misunderstanding and conflict.

Words do not carry meaning in themselves; they are only symbols. Meaning is created by each person from their own experience, background, culture and feelings. So the same word can mean different things to different people, and the receiver interprets a message in their own mind rather than simply taking out the sender's meaning. For example, "home" may mean warmth to one person and a place of conflict to another.

Rubber stamp expressions are worn-out, stereotyped phrases that are used automatically in business writing without thought, such as "as per your request", "please find enclosed herewith" and "thanking you in advance". They make writing dull, wordy and impersonal, so they should be replaced by fresh, direct wording such as "as you requested" and "I enclose".

Surplus words: "that are of the" and "type" add nothing.

Revised: He ordered executive desks.

Time lag is the gap between the time something happens or is observed and the time a person's knowledge, views or language about it are updated. People keep acting on out-of-date information as if it were still true, for example, treating a business that has changed hands or expanded as the same one they knew years ago. It is related to static evaluation and is overcome by dating statements ("Ram 2020 is not Ram 2025") and updating information regularly.

The grapevine is the informal communication network in an organization, in which information travels by word of mouth between employees outside the official chain of command. It is quick and flexible, and it is often partly inaccurate, since it carries rumours as well as facts.

Examples:

• Staff learning of a coming transfer or promotion in the canteen before any official notice.
• Rumours of salary cuts, layoffs or a merger passing from one department to another.
• Employees discussing a manager's resignation before it is announced.

Managers can use the grapevine to sense morale, but they should counter false rumours with timely, accurate formal communication.

The title page of a report normally contains:

• the title of the report, which states the subject clearly and briefly;
• the name, designation and address of the person or body for whom the report is prepared;
• the name, designation and address of the writer or the organization submitting it;
• the date of submission.

It may also include a reference or file number. The details are arranged neatly, centred on the page.

Proxemics is the study of how people use space and distance in communication. It covers the physical distance they keep from others (intimate, personal, social and public distance) and how this expresses relationship, status and comfort. For example, standing very close to a stranger can feel intrusive, while a manager sitting behind a large desk shows authority.

Meaning of abstraction

Abstraction is the process of leaving out details and picking out only some characteristics of an object or event, so that each higher level of language says less about the individual thing and covers more things. Language is therefore a ladder: low levels are concrete and specific, high levels are general and vague. The idea comes from S. I. Hayakawa's "ladder of abstraction", based on Korzybski's work.

The process, with an example

Take a particular cow named Bessie.

1. The actual object: the real cow, with a changing, almost infinite number of characteristics that we can never fully describe.
2. The object as we perceive it: our nervous system picks up only some of its features (colour, shape, sound) and ignores the rest.
3. The name "Bessie": a label that leaves out many details and stands for this one cow.
4. "Cow": a word that drops the features that make Bessie different and keeps those she shares with all cows.
5. "Livestock": includes cows, goats and buffaloes, so it leaves out still more.
6. "Farm assets": includes livestock, machines and land.
7. "Asset": or "wealth", the highest and most general level.

Diagram

 Higher abstraction (less detail, more general)
        ^
        |  7. Wealth / asset
        |  6. Farm assets
        |  5. Livestock
        |  4. Cow
        |  3. Bessie  (name)
        |  2. The cow as perceived (what we notice)
        |  1. The actual cow (all its characteristics)
 Lower abstraction (more detail, concrete)

Business example: "Our Honda Dio scooter, number Ba 12 Pa 3456" becomes "scooter", then "vehicle", then "company property", and finally "asset".

Importance for communication

• Concrete words are clear, exact and easy to picture; abstract words allow broad ideas but are easily misunderstood.
• A good communicator moves up and down the ladder, giving specific details and examples to support general statements.
• Staying at high levels leaves meaning vague; staying only at low levels fails to give the larger picture.
• Remembering that each abstraction leaves things out helps avoid allness ("all employees are lazy") and stereotyping.

Meaning