Sociology

Social structure is the patterned arrangement of relationships, roles, groups and institutions in society. Its major forms are groups, institutions, stratification and norms. Information technology (IT) can be seen as one of these major forms because:

1. It has become an institution: like the economy, education or polity, IT is organised (telecom, software industry, internet governance, regulations) and performs a social function: producing, storing and distributing information.
2. It organises relationships: social networks, online groups and virtual teams create new forms of interaction and a "network society" (Castells).
3. It shapes roles and statuses: programmer, data analyst, influencer, digital entrepreneur; it also determines status through digital literacy.
4. It creates stratification: the digital divide separates information-rich from information-poor.
5. It restructures other institutions: family communication, education (e-learning), economy (e-commerce), governance (e-governance) and even religion.
6. It creates new norms: netiquette, cyber law, online ethics.
7. The information society: modern society is organised around information as the main resource, as industrial society was around machines.

Hence IT is not merely a tool but a major structural force, pervading and reshaping the whole social structure.

Social structure means the stable arrangement of institutions, groups, roles and statuses in a society. In the present world, information technology (IT) (computers, internet, mobile networks, software, AI) has become one of its major forms, alongside the family, economy and polity. Writers such as Daniel Bell (post-industrial society) and Manuel Castells (network society) describe societies organised around information.

Why IT is a major structure

1. Economy: information is a main resource; digital banking, e-commerce, IT services and remittance apps drive economies. Many occupations depend on IT.
2. Communication and relationships: email, social media and video calls form networks that replace or extend physical communities.
3. Education: e-learning and online degrees.
4. Governance: e-governance, online services, digital identity and e-voting.
5. Culture: global media and online culture influence values, language and lifestyle.
6. Stratification: the digital divide creates new classes of information rich and poor.
7. Work organisation: remote work, outsourcing, freelancing and automation change roles and labour relations.
8. Social control: surveillance, data collection and cyber law.

Challenges: privacy, cyber crime, job loss, misinformation and addiction.

Conclusion: IT now shapes how people work, relate, learn and govern, and so it is a core part of the social structure today.

Definition of sociology

Sociology is the scientific study of human society, social relationships, groups, institutions and social behaviour. The term was coined by Auguste Comte; it studies how people interact, how social order is maintained and how societies change.

Viewpoints (perspectives) of sociology

• Functionalist perspective (Durkheim, Parsons, Merton): society is like a living organism whose parts (family, school, economy, state) work together to maintain stability. Each institution has manifest and latent functions, and dysfunction causes social problems.
• Conflict perspective (Marx, Weber): society is marked by inequality and competition over scarce resources such as wealth, power and status. Social order is maintained by the dominant groups, and change comes through conflict.
• Symbolic interactionist perspective (Mead, Blumer, Cooley): society is built through everyday face-to-face interaction. People act on the meanings they give to symbols, language and gestures, and the self develops through interaction.

Each gives a different but complementary lens: functionalism explains order, conflict theory explains inequality and change, and interactionism explains individual meaning.

Relation between information technology and sociology

1. IT as a social product: technology is created, adopted and shaped by social needs, culture and power relations.
2. Impact of IT on society: it changes communication (email, social media), work (remote work, automation), education (e-learning), economy (e-commerce, digital payments) and governance (e-governance).
3. Social change and new structures: it creates virtual communities, online identities, the digital divide and new forms of crime and surveillance.
4. Sociology guides IT: knowledge of users, culture, ethics and inequality helps IT professionals design inclusive, acceptable systems and plan social policy.

Thus IT and sociology are interrelated: society shapes technology and technology reshapes society.

Modernity

Modernity is the social condition that emerged in Europe after the Renaissance, the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution. Its features are rationality and science, industrialization, urbanization, the nation-state, capitalism, bureaucracy, individualism, secularization and belief in progress.

Post-modernity

Post-modernity (Lyotard, Baudrillard, Giddens in part) describes the later condition in which faith in grand narratives, universal truth and linear progress declines. Its features are pluralism and diversity, consumer culture, fragmented identities, media and image dominance (hyper-reality), globalization and information-based economy, and scepticism of authority.

Effect of information technology on modernization

Positive effects

• Faster spread of knowledge, science and education (online learning, open access).
• Economic growth through ICT industries, e-commerce, banking and remittance technology.
• Efficient, transparent governance (e-governance, digital records).
• Wider social participation, awareness and democratic voice through social media.
• Breaks down distance and traditional barriers; connects local people with the global culture.

Negative effects (critical view)

• Digital divide between urban/rich and rural/poor, which can widen inequality.
• Erosion of local culture and language through cultural homogenization.
• Privacy loss, surveillance, cybercrime and misinformation.
• Isolation, addiction and weakening of face-to-face and family relationships.
• Job loss through automation, and dependence on foreign technology.

Overall, IT is a major engine of modernization, speeding up rational, global and individualistic change, but its benefits depend on equal access and responsible use. In its fragmented, media-driven character it also pushes society toward post-modern conditions.

Meaning

Social change is the alteration over time in the structure, institutions, norms, values and relationships of a society. It includes changes in social organization, behaviour and culture. (Example: change from joint to nuclear families, or from agrarian to industrial economy.)

Nature and characteristics

1. Universal: every society changes, although at different speeds.
2. Continuous and inevitable: change is an ongoing process.
3. Variable in speed and direction: it may be fast (revolution) or slow (evolution), and may be progressive or regressive.
4. Social, not individual: it concerns collective patterns, not one person's behaviour.
5. Interconnected: a change in one part (economy) affects others (family, religion).
6. Planned or unplanned: some changes are deliberate (development plans), others are unintended consequences.
7. Temporal and spatial: it is measured over time and differs between places.

Factors responsible

• Technological: machines, ICT, transport and the internet change work and communication.
• Economic: industrialization, markets, employment, migration and remittance.
• Demographic: population growth, migration, urbanization, age structure.
• Cultural: new ideas, inventions, diffusion and cultural contact.
• Political and legal: state policies, laws, reforms, revolutions, movements.
• Educational: literacy and awareness change attitudes and values.
• Physical and environmental: earthquakes, floods, climate change.
• Ideological and religious: reform movements and new beliefs.

In Nepal, for example, education, foreign employment, ICT and the republic system have changed family patterns, caste attitudes and women's roles.

Culture is the whole way of life of a society: its knowledge, beliefs, values, norms, language, symbols, customs, art, technology and habits acquired as a member of society (E. B. Tylor).

Why it is fundamental to society

• Basis of social life: shared culture gives people common understanding, so society can function and members can predict one another's behaviour.
• Socialization: it is transmitted from generation to generation, shaping personality and identity.
• Social control: norms, values and customs regulate behaviour and maintain order.
• Identity and unity: language, festivals and traditions give group identity (for example, Dashain and Tihar in Nepal).
• Adaptation: material culture (tools, technology) helps people deal with their environment.
• Foundation of institutions: family, religion, education and economy rest on cultural values.

Critical view: culture is not entirely positive. It can also support inequality (caste or gender discrimination), resist change (cultural lag) and cause ethnocentrism. Yet no society can exist without culture, and culture itself can exist only within society, so the two are inseparable. Hence culture is rightly called a fundamental concept of society.

Meaning of social code

A social code is the set of accepted rules, norms, values, customs, etiquette and conventions that guide how people should behave in society. Some are informal (manners, customs, folkways), others formal (laws, regulations, professional codes of conduct).

Effects on individual life

Positive

• Guides behaviour and gives a clear idea of right and wrong.
• Provides order, security and predictability in relationships.
• Shapes personality and character through socialization.
• Gives a sense of belonging and identity.
• Controls deviance and promotes cooperation.

Negative (critical view)

• Strict codes restrict personal freedom and creativity.
• Can sustain discrimination, for example on gender, caste or marriage choice.
• Conformity pressure and fear of social sanction cause stress.
• Rigid codes resist change and lag behind modern needs.

Social codes are necessary for orderly life, but they should evolve with time so that they protect rights and do not oppress individuals.

Information technology (IT) has deeply changed society.

Positive impacts

• Communication: instant, cheap contact through email, mobile phones and social media.
• Education: online classes, digital libraries and wide access to knowledge.
• Economy: e-commerce, digital payment, IT jobs, outsourcing and entrepreneurship.
• Governance: e-governance, online services and greater transparency.
• Health, agriculture and services: telemedicine, market information and mobile banking.
• Awareness: public voice, social movements and access to information.

Negative impacts

• Digital divide between those with and without access.
• Cybercrime, privacy loss, misinformation and online harassment.
• Weak face-to-face relations, addiction and mental stress.
• Cultural erosion and job displacement through automation.

IT is therefore a powerful force of social change whose benefits depend on equitable and responsible use.

Definition

Marriage is a socially recognised and legally or religiously approved union between persons that establishes rights and obligations between them and their children, and is the basis of the family.

Changing practices in Nepalese society

• Choice of partner: arranged marriage was traditionally dominant; love marriage and consent-based marriage are rising, especially among educated and urban youth.
• Age at marriage: early and child marriage is declining due to law (legal age 20), education and awareness, though it persists in some areas.
• Inter-caste and inter-ethnic marriage: increasingly accepted, weakening caste barriers.
• Dowry and ceremonies: dowry is legally prohibited yet continues in places; weddings are becoming costlier and more commercial, with modern styles, event management and social media.
• Polygamy and traditional forms: polygamy and practices such as child marriage are legally banned and decreasing.
• Family form: newly married couples more often form nuclear households.
• Migration: foreign employment causes long separation of spouses; online and court marriages, and late marriage, are increasing.
• Legal and rights changes: same-sex union recognition debates and women's property and divorce rights show wider change.

Marriage in Nepal is thus shifting from a family- and caste-controlled contract to a more individual, rights-based and modern institution.

Development

Development is a planned process of improving people's economic, social and political conditions: higher income, better health, education, infrastructure, employment and quality of life. It is usually measurable (GDP, HDI).

Social progress

Social progress is movement toward a better, more desirable state of society as judged by values such as equality, justice, freedom and welfare. It is value-laden: what counts as progress depends on moral judgement.

Relationship

• Development is often the means and social progress the end: economic and material development can provide the base for progress.
• Development without equity, environmental care or human rights may not be progress (for example growth with rising inequality or pollution).
• Progress without material development is hard to sustain.
• Both are forms of change with a positive direction, but development is more technical and measurable, while progress is moral and qualitative.

So the two are closely related and ideally reinforce each other, but development does not automatically mean social progress.

Social change is any alteration in social structure, relations, institutions and culture over time. It is value-neutral: it may be good or bad, progressive or regressive, planned or unplanned. Example: increase in crime or breakdown of joint families is also social change.

Development is planned, directed change aimed at improving material and social conditions (income, health, education, infrastructure). It is purposeful and generally positive and measurable.

Progress is change toward a desired goal judged by values such as justice, equality and well-being. It is value-laden and qualitative.

Critical discussion: all development and progress are social change, but not all social change is development or progress. Rapid urbanization may be change without progress if it brings slums and pollution. Hence the concept of social change is broader and different from the other two.

Example: In Nepal's traditional Hindu caste system, a person born into Brahmin, Chhetri or Dalit groups keeps that status for life, with restrictions on inter-caste marriage and (historically) occupation. In a class system, a person born poor can become a doctor or businessman and move into a higher class through education and effort, as seen in the upper, middle and lower classes in cities.

Social policy and planning aim to solve social problems and improve welfare. IT is needed because:

1. Data collection and analysis: census, surveys, GIS and databases give accurate, up-to-date information on population, poverty, health and education.
2. Evidence-based planning: data analytics and modelling help predict needs, set priorities and allocate resources.
3. Efficiency and transparency: e-governance and management information systems reduce delay, duplication and corruption in programmes.
4. Targeting beneficiaries: national ID and digital records identify the right people for social security and subsidies.
5. Monitoring and evaluation: dashboards track progress and results of policies in real time.
6. Participation and communication: websites, mobile apps and social media let citizens give feedback and receive services.
7. Disaster and risk planning: early warning and mapping help in planning for emergencies.

Without IT, policies would rely on weak data, so IT is essential for modern, inclusive and effective social planning, provided the digital divide and privacy are also addressed.

(a) Social Structure

Social structure is the organized pattern of relationships among individuals, groups and institutions in a society. It is made of statuses, roles, norms, groups and institutions (family, religion, economy, polity, education) that are stable and give society its framework. It guides behaviour, provides order and links individuals to society. It includes social stratification (class, caste) and is changed over time by factors such as technology. Example: the family, caste and class system in Nepal.

(b) Ethnic and Racial groups

An ethnic group is a people sharing a common culture, language, religion, ancestry and a sense of identity (for example, Newar, Tharu, Gurung, Tamang in Nepal). It is based on cultural traits.

A racial group is a category of people distinguished mainly by visible physical (biological) traits such as skin colour, though modern sociology treats race as a social construct rather than a scientific fact.

Both can be the basis of identity, but also of prejudice, discrimination and inequality. Nepal is a multi-ethnic society, and its policy emphasizes inclusion and equal rights for all groups.

Sociological perspective is a way of looking at human behaviour and society by seeing the general patterns, social forces and structures that shape individual lives. C. Wright Mills called it the "sociological imagination": linking personal troubles with public issues, and individual biography with history and social structure. A theoretical perspective is a framework of assumptions used to interpret society.

1. Functional perspective (structural functionalism)

Key thinkers: Comte, Spencer, Durkheim, Parsons, Merton.

Key notions:

• Society is a system of interdependent parts (like a living organism), each with a function that contributes to stability.
• Social order rests on consensus: shared norms and values.
• Institutions (family, education, economy, religion, state) meet basic societal needs (Parsons' AGIL: adaptation, goal attainment, integration, latency).
• Merton: manifest functions (intended), latent functions (unintended), and dysfunctions.
• Social change is gradual and the system returns to equilibrium.
• Even deviance has a function (Durkheim): it clarifies boundaries and strengthens solidarity.

2. Conflict perspective

Key thinkers: Marx, Weber, Dahrendorf, Coser.

Key notions:

• Society is an arena of inequality where groups compete for scarce resources, wealth and power.
• Marx: history is class struggle between owners (bourgeoisie) and workers (proletariat). The economic base shapes the superstructure (law, religion, ideology).
• Weber added status and power (party) to class; Dahrendorf stressed authority relations.
• Social order is maintained by coercion and dominant ideology, not by consensus.
• Conflict is a driver of social change.
• Later strands include feminist and race-conflict theory.

Critical analysis

Both are macro-level views and are complementary. A full understanding of a society like Nepal, with both integrating institutions and caste, class and ethnic inequality, needs both perspectives, along with micro-level symbolic interactionism.

Culture is the learned, shared way of life of a society, passed from generation to generation. It has two broad parts: material culture (tools, buildings, technology) and non-material culture (ideas, beliefs, values, norms, language, symbols).

Main components

1. Symbols
2. Language
3. Values
4. Norms
5. Beliefs
6. Material culture and technology (computers, artefacts)
7. Institutions, customs, arts and knowledge

1. Symbols. A symbol is anything that carries a meaning recognised by people who share a culture: a word, gesture, flag, logo, religious sign (the Nepali flag, namaste, swastika, khada). Symbols allow people to communicate meaning and build identity. Meanings are arbitrary and change across cultures.

2. Language. The system of spoken, written and gestured symbols that lets people communicate. It is the main vehicle for transmitting culture and knowledge, shapes thought (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis) and creates group identity. Nepal has over 120 languages; Nepali is the lingua franca. Language also marks status and power.

3. Cultural values. Shared ideas about what is good, desirable and important: respect for elders, honesty, hospitality ("Atithi Devo Bhava"), family loyalty, peace. Values supply standards for judging behaviour and are the base of norms.

4. Norms. Rules of expected behaviour. Sumner divided them into folkways (everyday customs such as greeting, dress), and mores (strongly held norms whose violation is condemned, such as taboos on incest). Laws are formal norms enforced by the state. Norms are backed by sanctions, positive or negative.

5. Cultural beliefs. Shared convictions about what is true: religious beliefs (karma, rebirth, gods), superstitions (Chhaupadi, witchcraft in some areas) and scientific knowledge. They guide actions and rituals.

Critical discussion. These elements are interrelated: values give norms their meaning, language expresses beliefs and symbols, and all are learned through socialisation. Functionally, they integrate and regulate society; critically, they may support inequality (gender or caste practices), cause conflict (ethnocentrism), or fall into cultural lag with technology. Culture is dynamic and is being reshaped by globalisation and IT.

Social structure is the organised pattern of relationships, statuses, roles, groups and institutions in a society. Its major forms and their features, with the effects of information technology (IT), are as follows.

1. Social groups. Primary groups (family, friends) are small and intimate; secondary groups (office, association) are large and formal. IT effect: online communities and social networks create virtual groups and weaken face-to-face primary relations.

2. Social institutions. Family, religion, education, economy and polity.

• Family: nuclear and joint forms. IT changes communication within the family, enables transnational families through video calls, but reduces interaction time.
• Education: e-learning, online degrees and open resources.
• Economy: e-commerce, digital banking, remote work, automation.
• Polity: e-governance, online campaigning, digital activism.
• Religion: online worship, spread of religious content.

3. Statuses and roles. Ascribed and achieved statuses and their expected roles. IT creates new roles (programmer, data analyst, influencer) and changes old ones (women's participation).

4. Social stratification. Caste, class, gender, ethnicity. IT can reduce inequality through access to opportunity, but also produces a digital divide and a new "information elite".

5. Norms and values (cultural structure). IT spreads global values and brings netiquette and cyber-ethics, but may erode local traditions.

6. Social organisation: bureaucracy and networks. Hierarchical bureaucracy is being complemented by flat, networked organisations (Castells' network society) and virtual teams.

Conclusion. Social structure provides order and shapes individual life. IT is transforming each of its forms, making it more flexible, networked and global, while raising challenges of inequality, privacy and cultural change.

Nepal's social structure is based on family, caste, ethnicity, religion and rural community life. IT has influenced it as follows.

• Family: mobile phones, video calling and remittance apps keep migrant families connected, but joint families are weakening and interaction time is reduced.
• Caste, gender and class: information and online opportunities raise awareness of rights and allow marginalised groups and women to find voice, education and jobs. Yet the digital divide (rural, poor, women, elderly) can create new inequality.
• Education and economy: online learning, freelancing, IT parks, digital payments (eSewa, Khalti, IME Pay) and e-commerce create new occupations and middle-class opportunities.
• Governance and politics: e-governance, online services and social media campaigns increase transparency and political participation.
• Culture and values: global media influences language, dress, food and attitudes; youth culture changes, while festivals and traditions also spread online.
• Social problems: cyber-crime, online fraud, fake news, addiction and privacy violation.

Overall IT is making Nepal's structure more open, mobile and networked, but access and digital literacy are needed so that benefits are shared equally.

Nepalese culture is diverse (many castes, ethnic groups, languages and religions) and is changing fast in the 21st century.

Main trends

1. Globalisation and media: satellite TV, internet, Korean/Hindi/Western content influence dress, music, food and language of youth.
2. Technology and social media: festival greetings, rituals, weddings and news share online; new digital culture (TikTok, YouTube, memes).
3. Migration and remittance: foreign employment and study abroad bring new values, consumption patterns and cultural exchange; some villages have lost youth and traditional practices.
4. Urbanisation: nuclear families grow, joint families decline, and rural customs weaken.
5. Revival and identity assertion: ethnic groups (Newar, Tharu, Limbu and others) promote their languages, festivals and dress; inclusion has increased with the republic and federalism.
6. Changing social practices: decline of Chhaupadi, untouchability and child marriage; increase of inter-caste marriage, women's participation and gender awareness.
7. Commercialisation: festivals and weddings become more commercial and display-oriented.
8. Education and modern values: scientific outlook and individualism, with some conflict between old and new generations (cultural lag).

Thus Nepalese culture is blending tradition and modernity, with both opportunities (openness, rights) and concerns (loss of heritage and identity).

Social structure is the relatively stable, patterned arrangement of social relationships, statuses, roles, groups and institutions that organises a society and shapes individual behaviour. (Radcliffe-Brown: an arrangement of persons in institutionally controlled relationships; Giddens: the patterns of social relations that persist.)

Types of social structure

1. Micro and macro structure: micro covers face-to-face patterns of interaction (family, friends, small groups); macro covers large-scale arrangements (economy, class system, state).
2. Cultural and social structure: cultural structure means norms, values and beliefs; social structure means the actual patterns of relationships and positions.
3. Institutional structure: family, kinship, religion, education, economy and polity.
4. Stratification structure: divisions by caste, class, gender, ethnicity, age.
5. Group and organisational structure: primary and secondary groups, bureaucracies, associations, networks.
6. Simple (traditional) and complex (modern) structures: small, kin-based, agrarian societies versus large, specialised, industrial and information societies.

(Marx also distinguished the economic base from the superstructure, while Durkheim distinguished mechanical and organic solidarity.)

Social differentiation is the process by which society is divided into different positions, roles and groups according to age, sex, occupation, religion, language, ethnicity and so on. It describes difference without necessarily ranking people.

Social stratification is the hierarchical ranking of individuals or groups into higher and lower layers according to wealth, power, prestige and status, with unequal access to resources. It is structured inequality, persists across generations, is found in all societies, and takes forms such as slavery, caste, estate and class.

Difference: differentiation is horizontal (different), while stratification is vertical (higher/lower).

Nepalese society

• Differentiation: over 125 caste and ethnic groups, around 123 languages, religions (Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, Kirat, Christian), and three ecological regions (Himal, Pahad, Tarai) and seven provinces.
• Stratification: the Hindu caste hierarchy of the Muluki Ain (1854) placed Brahmin and Chhetri at the top and Dalits at the bottom, with untouchability (now illegal under the 2011 Act). Class divisions exist between landlords, businessmen, middle class, labourers and the landless. Gender inequality (patriarchy), regional (urban-rural, Kathmandu-periphery) and ethnic disparities also exist.
• Inclusion policies, reservation and federalism attempt to reduce inequality.

Information technology (IT) is both a cause and a tool of social change.

Positive effects

• Faster communication, spread of knowledge and awareness, and wider education.
• Economic change: e-commerce, digital finance, outsourcing, new occupations, higher productivity.
• Democratic participation: social media, e-governance, online petitions and movements (Arab Spring, Nepal's social media-driven campaigns).
• Changes in family, gender roles and the status of marginalised groups through new opportunities.
• Globalisation of culture and ideas.

Negative effects

• Digital divide increasing inequality.
• Weakened face-to-face ties, privacy loss, surveillance and addiction.
• Cyber-crime, misinformation, hate speech.
• Cultural homogenisation and job displacement by automation.

Critical view. IT does not itself determine change (technological determinism); its effect depends on how society adopts it: policy, culture and access. Thus IT accelerates social change in directions that may be beneficial or harmful.

Social change is the significant alteration over time in the structure, institutions, relationships and culture of a society (MacIver and Page: change in social relationships). It is universal, continuous, variable in speed and caused by many factors.

Factors responsible

• Demographic: population growth, migration, urbanisation (foreign employment in Nepal).
• Physical/geographical: climate change, earthquakes, floods.
• Technological: machines, transport, internet and mobile phones.
• Economic: industrialisation, markets, remittance, poverty.
• Cultural: new ideas, contact and diffusion, innovations.
• Political and legal: revolutions, laws, the republic and federal restructuring.
• Educational and scientific: literacy and a scientific outlook.
• Ideology and religion: reform movements and secular values.
• Social movements and leadership: women's, Dalit and Janajati movements.
• Globalisation and mass media.

No single factor is solely responsible; they interact.

Social problem is a condition or behaviour that a significant number of people consider harmful to society and that needs collective action to solve. Examples in Nepal include poverty, unemployment, corruption, caste and gender discrimination, child marriage, domestic violence, drug abuse, migration, and cyber-crime.

Contribution of sociological knowledge

1. Understanding causes: sociology looks beyond individual blame to find structural causes (inequality, norms, institutions).
2. Research and data: surveys, case studies and statistics measure the extent and trends of problems.
3. Theoretical frameworks: functionalist, conflict and interactionist views help explain why problems arise and persist.
4. Policy and planning: findings guide governments and NGOs in designing programmes for education, welfare and inclusion.
5. Awareness and attitude change: exposes myths, prejudices and stereotypes, and promotes tolerance and rights.
6. Evaluation: assesses whether programmes and laws work.
7. Community participation and prevention: helps in mobilising groups and in anticipating problems before they grow.

Thus sociology provides the knowledge base to diagnose, prevent and reduce social problems scientifically.

(a) Social class and caste

Social class is a group of people who share a similar economic position, income, occupation, education and life chances (upper, middle, lower class). It is achieved and open, allowing mobility, and is typical of modern industrial society. Marx defined class by ownership of the means of production; Weber added status and power.

Caste is a closed, hereditary system of stratification based on birth, ritual purity and occupation, with endogamy and restrictions on food, touch and interaction. In Nepal the Hindu caste hierarchy (Brahmin, Chhetri, Vaishya, Shudra and Dalit) was codified in the Muluki Ain of 1854; caste discrimination is now illegal. The key difference is that caste is ascribed and fixed whereas class is achieved and changeable, though in practice they overlap.

(b) Mass Communication

Mass communication is the process of sending messages to a large, scattered audience through media such as newspapers, radio, television, films and the internet. Features: one-to-many, impersonal, with limited feedback, using technology and institutions. Functions: information, education, entertainment, socialisation, public opinion formation, social control and advertising. Sociologically it shapes culture and public opinion and drives social change. Issues include bias, commercialisation, misinformation and cultural dominance. The internet and social media have made mass communication more interactive.

Social processes are the recurring, patterned ways in which individuals and groups interact and relate to one another, and through which social relationships are formed, maintained and changed (Gillin and Gillin). They are the dynamic side of society.

Major types

• Associative (integrative) processes
  • Cooperation: working together for common goals (teamwork, community forestry).
  • Accommodation: adjusting to reduce conflict (compromise, mediation, tolerance).
  • Assimilation: minority or newcomer groups fully absorbing the culture of the majority.
  • Acculturation: cultural borrowing through contact, without complete merging.
• Dissociative (disintegrative) processes
  • Competition: rivalry for limited resources, jobs, marks, markets; impersonal and often rule-bound.
  • Conflict: open struggle or hostility to defeat the other (strikes, wars, ethnic conflict).
• Others: socialisation, social control, social mobility, differentiation, stratification and social change.

Interaction of social processes with information technology

1. Cooperation: collaborative tools, open-source software, crowdfunding, online communities, Wikipedia and remote teamwork enable cooperation across borders.
2. Competition: e-commerce, app markets, online exams and the job market intensify competition among firms and individuals; algorithms create new rivalry.
3. Conflict: cyber-bullying, hate speech, trolling, cyber-attacks, online misinformation and political polarisation create new forms of conflict.
4. Accommodation: online dispute resolution, moderation rules, translation tools, cyber laws and netiquette help manage conflict.
5. Assimilation and acculturation: global media and social platforms spread cultures, producing hybrid culture and sometimes cultural homogenisation.
6. Socialisation: social media and online games are agents of socialisation alongside family and school.
7. Social control: surveillance, digital ID, CCTV, cyber law and platform policy.
8. Social mobility and differentiation: digital skills open new routes to income and status, but the digital divide creates a new stratification.

Conclusion. IT is changing the speed, scale and form of all social processes, making interaction faster and borderless. Society must ensure ethical use, equal access and digital literacy so that IT supports cooperative rather than disintegrative processes.

Social differentiation is the process by which a society divides into different categories, roles and groups based on age, sex, occupation, language, religion, ethnicity and region. It refers to difference and specialisation (Durkheim: division of labour), not ranking. It is usually horizontal.

Social stratification is the hierarchical ranking of people into layers (strata) with unequal wealth, power and prestige, persisting across generations. It is vertical and structured inequality.

Main systems: slavery, estate, caste, and class (Marx: ownership; Weber: class, status, party). Theories: functionalist (Davis and Moore: ensures important positions are filled by talented people), and conflict (inequality benefits the dominant groups and is maintained by power).

Differentiation of Nepalese society

• Caste and ethnicity: more than 125 caste and ethnic groups (Brahmin, Chhetri, Newar, Gurung, Magar, Tharu, Rai, Limbu, Madhesi, Dalit and others).
• Language: about 123 languages (Nepali, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Tharu, Tamang, Newari and others).
• Religion: Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, Kirat, Christian.
• Geography/region: Himal, Pahad and Tarai, with rural-urban, and seven federal provinces.
• Class and occupation: farmers, labourers, traders, professionals, civil servants, and migrant workers.
• Gender and age: patriarchal differences; youth, elderly.
• Stratification features: historical caste hierarchy (Muluki Ain 1854), untouchability against Dalits, landlord-tenant and rich-poor gaps, gender discrimination, and regional inequality. The constitution of 2015, laws against caste discrimination, reservation and federalism aim at inclusion.

Hence Nepal is a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual and multi-religious society which is both highly differentiated and stratified, and its cohesion depends on inclusion and equity.

Definition. Sociology is the scientific study of human society, social relationships, groups, institutions and social behaviour. Auguste Comte coined the term in 1838 (Latin socius, Greek logos). Giddens defines it as the study of human social life, groups and societies; Durkheim as the science of social facts; Weber as the interpretive understanding of social action.

Nature and scope: it is a science of society, empirical, general and theoretical; it studies social institutions, processes, stratification, culture, change and social problems.

Relation with information technology (IT)

1. Society creates IT. Technology arises from social needs, economy, education and politics, and is adopted according to culture and policy.
2. IT changes society. IT is a major agent of social change: it alters communication, work, education, economy, politics and family life; it produces the information society and the network society (Castells).
3. New social forms: virtual communities, online identity, social media, digital culture, e-commerce and e-governance.
4. Stratification: the digital divide by income, location, gender and age creates new inequality.
5. Social problems of IT: cyber-crime, privacy violation, addiction, fake news, automation and job loss, which sociology analyses.
6. Social control and norms: cyber law, netiquette, digital ethics and surveillance.
7. Sociology helps IT professionals: understanding users, designing culturally sensitive, inclusive and ethical systems, managing teams and organisations, and assessing social impact of software.
8. IT helps sociology: surveys, big data, simulation and social network analysis are modern research tools.

Conclusion. Sociology and IT are mutually dependent: sociology explains the causes and consequences of technology in society, and IT supplies new tools and a new subject for sociology. An IT professional needs sociological understanding to be socially responsible.

A traditional society is mainly agrarian, small-scale and based on custom, kinship and religion. A technological society is based on science, advanced technology and information.

Illustration. A traditional Nepali village relies on farming, the extended family and festivals under elders' authority. In a technological society, like Kathmandu's IT sector, people work in offices or remotely, pay by mobile wallets, study online and communicate globally. Nepal is in transition, with elements of both.

Major problems of Nepali society

• Poverty and unemployment (leading to massive foreign migration)
• Caste, ethnic and gender discrimination; untouchability; domestic violence; Chhaupadi; child marriage; dowry
• Illiteracy and poor quality education; weak health services
• Corruption and political instability
• Regional inequality and landlessness
• Natural disasters and environmental degradation
• Drug abuse, crime, human trafficking
• Brain drain and dependency on remittance
• Digital divide and cyber-crime

Viewpoint of a student of sociology on solutions

1. Structural understanding: problems have social, not just individual, causes. Therefore solutions must address institutions, norms and inequality.
2. Education and awareness: quality, inclusive education and campaigns to change attitudes and harmful traditions.
3. Economic opportunity: employment generation, agriculture and industry, skill training and entrepreneurship, reducing forced migration.
4. Inclusion and rights: strictly enforce laws against discrimination and violence; empower women and marginalised groups; proportional participation.
5. Good governance: transparency, accountability and decentralisation through local government.
6. Research-based policy: use surveys and data for planning.
7. Community participation: involve local groups, NGOs and youth.
8. Use of IT: e-governance, digital literacy and online services to reach remote areas.
9. Cultural sensitivity: change harmful customs by dialogue and respect for identity, not imposition.

Modernity is the social order that arose with the Enlightenment, the scientific and industrial revolutions. It rests on reason and science, industrial capitalism, urbanisation, bureaucracy, the nation-state, secularism, individual rights and belief in progress. Example: a factory or office city life, a rational legal system, universal schooling, democratic elections.

Post-modernity is the later (late-20th-century) condition that doubts modernity's certainty and progress. It stresses plurality of truths, fragmented and fluid identities, scepticism of "grand narratives" (Lyotard), consumerism, media images and simulation (Baudrillard), globalisation and information technology. Examples: social-media identities and influencers, online shopping and brand culture, fusion of cultures and styles in music and fashion, fake news and competing "truths", remote and gig work.

In Nepal, constitutional democracy, schools, and industry reflect modernity, while Tik-Tok culture and digital consumer life show post-modern features.

Yes. An IT expert works within and for society, so sociological knowledge is essential.

Why it is needed

1. Understanding users: culture, language, class, gender, age and disability affect how people use technology, so designs must be inclusive and usable.
2. Social impact assessment: software changes jobs, privacy, relationships and power; sociology helps predict these effects.
3. Ethics and responsibility: issues such as privacy, bias in algorithms, surveillance and misinformation require social awareness.
4. Teamwork and organisations: understanding group dynamics, communication and organisational culture helps in project and team management.
5. Digital divide: awareness of inequality helps design services accessible to rural, poor and marginalised people.
6. Legal and policy awareness: cyber law and social norms.
7. Problem solving: to address cyber-crime, addiction and cyber-bullying.

How an IT expert can contribute to society

• Developing e-governance, e-learning, telemedicine, digital payment and agri-information systems for public benefit.
• Spreading digital literacy and training in communities and schools.
• Creating jobs, start-ups and exporting IT services; promoting local language content.
• Strengthening cyber security and protecting privacy.
• Using data and software for disaster management, planning and transparency.
• Building open-source and assistive technologies for people with disabilities.
• Acting as an ethical role model and promoting responsible use of technology.

Globalization is the process by which countries, economies, cultures and people become increasingly interconnected and interdependent through the flow of goods, capital, people, information and ideas across borders, speeded up by transport and information technology.

Main features

• Economic integration: free trade, multinational companies and global markets. Example: Nepali goods and services are sold abroad, and brands such as Coca-Cola, Samsung and Toyota are common in Nepal.
• Technological connectivity: the internet, mobile phones and social media shrink distance. Example: Nepalis use Facebook, TikTok and YouTube daily, and e-payment apps such as eSewa and Khalti are widespread.
• Cultural exchange and diffusion: ideas, food, music and fashion spread. Example: Korean and Western music, fast food and festivals such as Valentine's Day have entered Nepali youth culture.
• Migration and remittance: labour moves across borders. Example: millions of Nepalis work in the Gulf, Malaysia and Korea, and remittance supports the national economy.
• Political and institutional interdependence: membership of the UN, WTO and SAARC, and the influence of international NGOs and donors on policy.
• Information flow and awareness: faster news and spread of human rights ideas, which has affected gender roles and caste attitudes.

Globalization brings opportunity but also risks, such as erosion of local culture and inequality.

An institution is an organised, relatively stable system of norms, roles and statuses that meets a basic need of society.

Economic institutions organise production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.

• Include agriculture, industry, banks, markets, cooperatives and trade.
• Features: division of labour, property ownership, exchange (money and markets), and systems such as capitalism, socialism or mixed economy. Nepal follows a mixed economy.

Political institutions deal with power, authority and governance.

• Include the state, constitution, parliament, executive, judiciary, political parties and local governments.
• Features: legitimate authority, making and enforcing laws, maintaining order, and protecting rights. Nepal is a federal democratic republic with three tiers of government.

Social institutions meet the social needs of members.

• Include family, religion, education, marriage and kinship.
• Features: socialize the young, transmit culture, regulate behaviour, and give identity and support.

All institutions are interrelated, have norms and sanctions, and change over time.

Difference between class and caste

In Nepali society

The caste system was legalised by the Muluki Ain of 1854, which ranked groups hierarchically. Untouchability was abolished in 1963 and is now a punishable crime under the Constitution, yet Dalit groups still face discrimination in rural areas, in marriage and in access to resources. Class divisions are growing, shaped by land ownership, education, urban or rural residence and remittance, and the two overlap, as many Dalit and marginalised groups are also economically poor. Caste is weakening in cities and through education, but it persists in social attitudes, while class-based inequality is expanding.

Family is a primary social group of people related by blood, marriage or adoption who live together, cooperate economically and raise children.

Types of family

• By structure: nuclear (parents and unmarried children); joint/extended (several generations or married brothers with their families under one roof).
• By authority: patriarchal (father or male head holds authority); matriarchal (mother holds authority).
• By marriage: monogamous (one spouse); polygamous (polygyny or polyandry).
• By residence: patrilocal, matrilocal, neolocal.
• By descent: patrilineal, matrilineal.

Changing formation of family in Nepal

• Joint families are declining and nuclear families are increasing because of urbanization, education and job migration.
• Foreign labour migration leaves many households with absent men, so women head households and take decisions, and grandparents raise grandchildren.
• Women's education and employment weaken patriarchal control.
• Choice in marriage, late marriage and smaller families are growing, and single-parent and live-in families are appearing.
• Modern technology and media change family relations, and the family's educational and economic roles are shifting to schools and the market.

(a) Material and non-material culture

Material culture consists of the physical, tangible objects made and used by people: tools, buildings, clothes, vehicles, computers and mobile phones. Non-material culture consists of the intangible products of society: beliefs, values, norms, language, customs, knowledge, symbols and religion. Material culture usually changes faster, and non-material culture lags behind it, which William Ogburn called cultural lag. Example: mobile and internet technology spreads quickly in Nepal while attitudes and customs change slowly.

(b) Necessity of information technology in Nepal

• Education: online classes, e-libraries and access to global knowledge, especially useful for remote areas.
• Governance: e-governance, online tax and citizen services improve transparency and reduce corruption.
• Economy: digital payments, e-commerce, banking, outsourcing and IT exports create jobs.
• Health: telemedicine and digital health records.
• Communication and awareness: fast information, disaster alerts and links with Nepalis abroad.
• Development: it helps agriculture, tourism and the achievement of national goals.

Sociology is the scientific study of society, social relationships, groups, institutions and social change. In the twenty-first century, a world changed by technology, globalization, migration and conflict, it remains highly relevant.

1. Understanding rapid social change. Digitalization, urbanization and globalization alter family, work, culture and identity. Sociology gives concepts and methods to analyse these changes objectively.

2. Social policy and planning. Governments need sociological research on poverty, inequality, gender, health and education to design effective programmes. Example: inclusion policies for Dalits, women and Janajati in Nepal.

3. Understanding social problems. It examines unemployment, crime, corruption, domestic violence, drug abuse and discrimination, and explains their social causes rather than blaming individuals.

4. Technology and the digital society. It studies social media, online identity, cyber crime, digital divide and the impact of AI on work and relationships. IT professionals need this to build socially responsible systems.

5. Globalization and multiculturalism. It helps people understand cultural diversity, reduces prejudice and promotes tolerance and peaceful coexistence.

6. Conflict resolution and social harmony. It explains the roots of ethnic, religious and class conflict and supports peacebuilding.

7. Development and environment. It examines community participation, migration, climate change and sustainable development.

8. Personal and professional use. It builds critical thinking, awareness of one's own social position and skills for working in diverse teams and organisations.

Therefore sociology is not only an academic subject but a practical guide for solving the problems of modern society.

A symbol is anything that carries a particular meaning recognised by people who share a culture: a word, gesture, image, object or sound. Symbols are the basis of culture; without them there could be no shared meaning.

Role of symbols in culture

1. Communication: language, the most important symbol system, lets people share thoughts, so communication and cooperation become possible.
2. Transmission of culture: symbols carry knowledge, values and traditions from generation to generation through speech, writing and art.
3. Shared meaning and identity: the national flag, anthem, Nepali dress (daura suruwal, dhaka topi) and religious signs such as the Om or the cross create belonging and unity.
4. Social order and norms: traffic signals, uniforms and badges show roles and rules, and guide behaviour.
5. Expression of values and beliefs: rituals, festivals, tika and prayer flags express religious and moral values.
6. Social interaction: in symbolic interactionism (Mead, Blumer), people act according to the meanings of symbols, so society is built through symbolic interaction.
7. Thinking and learning: symbols allow abstract thought, planning and imagining the past and future.
8. Digital culture: emojis, icons and logos work as symbols in online communication.

Meanings of symbols are arbitrary and differ between cultures (a white dress means mourning in Nepal but purity in the West), so they must be learned. Symbols therefore bind society, preserve culture and make social life orderly.

Social structure is the organised pattern of relationships among the groups, institutions, roles and statuses in a society. Information technology (IT) has become a force that reshapes it.

Influences of IT

1. Economic structure: automation, e-commerce, digital banking and freelancing create new occupations and decrease routine jobs; knowledge and skill become key resources.
2. Social stratification: a digital divide separates those with access and skills from those without it, creating new inequalities by income, region and gender. IT skills are a new route of mobility.
3. Family and relationships: video calls keep migrant families connected, online matchmaking and social media change courtship, and screen time reduces face-to-face interaction.
4. Education: online learning, MOOCs and digital libraries widen access to education.
5. Political structure: e-governance, online campaigns and social media activism increase participation and transparency, but also spread misinformation.
6. Culture and community: global culture spreads easily, virtual communities replace local ones, and local traditions may weaken.
7. Roles and status: new roles appear (developers, influencers, data analysts) while the status of elders as knowledge holders falls.
8. Social problems: cyber crime, privacy loss, online bullying and addiction.

IT thus changes how people work, relate, learn and govern. Its benefits depend on equal access and responsible use.

Key characteristics of traditional societies

• Small, mostly rural, agrarian economy with subsistence farming and simple technology.
• Strong kinship ties, extended families and close community relations (Gemeinschaft).
• Social order based on custom, tradition, religion and elders' authority.
• Ascribed status (caste, birth), little social mobility.
• Little division of labour and slow social change.

Difference from technological societies

Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural traits such as ideas, customs, technology and styles from one society to another.

Role of globalization

• Trade, migration, tourism and multinational companies carry products and lifestyles across borders. Example: foreign brands, fast food and fashion in Nepal.
• International migration, such as Nepalis working abroad, brings back new habits and ideas.
• Global institutions and education spread common norms like human rights and democracy.

Role of technological advancements

• The internet, satellite TV, mobile phones and social media spread culture instantly. Example: Korean dramas, Bollywood and Hollywood films, and K-pop popular among Nepali youth.
• Streaming and e-commerce make cultural goods available everywhere.
• Fast transport makes contact between societies easy.

Result: greater cultural exchange and shared global culture, but also cultural homogenization and the risk to local languages and traditions, as well as hybrid cultures.

Contribution to social structure

The family is the basic unit of social structure.

• It reproduces society by having and raising children.
• It is the first agent of socialization, passing on language, values and norms.
• It regulates sexual behaviour and marriage, and gives children legal status, kinship and inheritance of property.
• It acts as an economic unit of production and consumption.
• It links individuals with other institutions such as education, religion and the economy.

Roles in shaping individuals' lives

• Socialization and personality: early identity, self-esteem and behaviour develop in the family.
• Emotional support: love, security and care in childhood, illness and old age.
• Social placement: gives class, caste, religion and ethnicity, which affect life chances.
• Education and values: encourages learning, morality and discipline.
• Protection and economic support for children, the elderly and the disabled.

Social differentiation is the process by which a society divides into different, specialised positions, roles and groups according to differences such as age, sex, occupation, ethnicity, religion and function. These differences are not necessarily ranked. Example: doctor, teacher and farmer differ in function, and men and women have different roles.

Social stratification is the hierarchical ranking of individuals and groups into layers (strata) of unequal power, wealth and prestige, in which inequality is built into the social structure and continues across generations. Main forms are slavery, estate, caste and class. Example: the caste hierarchy in Nepal, or upper, middle and lower classes.

Relation: differentiation is the base of stratification. When differences are ranked as higher and lower, differentiation becomes stratification.

Political institutions are organised structures, rules and bodies through which power is acquired, exercised and distributed in a society. They include the state, constitution, legislature (parliament), executive (government), judiciary, political parties, bureaucracy, the army and police, and local governments. Their central concept is power and legitimate authority.

Significance in governing societies

1. Maintaining order and security through law, police and courts.
2. Making and enforcing laws and policies to guide public life.
3. Resolving conflicts peacefully through courts and elected bodies.
4. Protecting rights and freedoms of citizens, and ensuring justice.
5. Providing public services such as education, health, roads and welfare.
6. Representation and participation through elections and parties, which makes government accountable.
7. Allocating resources and promoting development.
8. Defending the country and managing relations with other states.

Example: Nepal's federal democratic structure with federal, provincial and local governments.

Globalization is the growing worldwide interconnection of economies, cultures and societies.

Influence on social change

• Economic change: free trade, foreign investment, outsourcing and remittance transform livelihoods and create new jobs but also inequality.
• Cultural change: global media, food, fashion and language (English) mix with local culture, creating hybrid identities as well as some loss of local tradition.
• Social structure: migration, urbanization, smaller families and changing gender roles; greater education and women's participation.
• Political change: spread of democracy, human rights, international organisations and NGOs.
• Technology: the internet and social media connect people instantly and create a "global village".

Shaping the contemporary world: interdependent economies, global problems such as climate change and pandemics needing global cooperation, multicultural societies, and both new opportunities and new inequalities between rich and poor nations.

Social policy is a government's plan and programme to improve people's welfare in areas such as health, education, housing, employment and social security. Sociology contributes in the following ways.

1. Identifying social problems: research shows the extent and causes of poverty, unemployment, discrimination and violence.
2. Providing data and evidence: surveys, censuses and field studies give reliable information for planning.
3. Understanding target groups: it explains the needs and behaviour of women, Dalits, indigenous peoples, children and the elderly so policies are inclusive.
4. Predicting consequences: it assesses the likely social effects of a policy before it is applied.
5. Monitoring and evaluation: it measures whether programmes work and who benefits.
6. Promoting equality and social justice and community participation.

Example: sociological studies guided Nepal's inclusion and reservation policies and anti-untouchability laws.

Social and technological advancements can bring positive change when used wisely.

Technological advancements

• Education and knowledge: online learning and digital libraries widen access.
• Health: telemedicine, digital records and vaccines reach remote people.
• Economy: e-commerce, digital payment, IT jobs and farming technology raise income.
• Governance: e-governance increases transparency and efficiency.
• Communication: connects families and communities and spreads awareness quickly.

Social advancements

• Awareness of equality, gender and human rights, laws against discrimination, inclusive education and community participation reduce inequality and improve harmony.

Together: technology gives tools and social values give direction; access for all, digital literacy and ethical use ensure the benefits reach everyone and harms such as the digital divide, misinformation and cyber crime are limited.

Social media (Facebook, TikTok, Instagram, YouTube, WhatsApp) has become a major arena of social life.

Positive roles

• Keeps people in touch across distance, for example migrant workers with families.
• Allows new friendships and communities around shared interests.
• Gives voice to marginalised people, supports activism and awareness campaigns.
• Provides information, education and business opportunities.

Negative roles

• Replaces face-to-face interaction, causing loneliness and weaker real-life ties.
• Creates superficial relationships, comparison, anxiety and addiction.
• Cyberbullying, rumours, misinformation, privacy loss and fraud.
• Changes courtship and family communication, sometimes creating conflict.

Conclusion: social media reshapes how relationships form, are maintained and end. It extends interaction, but balanced and responsible use is needed.

Sociology (from Latin socius, companion, and Greek logos, study) is the scientific study of human society, social relationships, social groups, institutions and social behaviour. Auguste Comte coined the term in 1838. Durkheim defined it as the science of social facts, and Giddings as the scientific study of society. Its subject matter includes culture, socialization, social structure, stratification, institutions, social control and social change.

Relationship with other sciences

• Anthropology: studies humans and culture, mostly small, simple societies, while sociology studies modern complex societies. They share methods and concepts such as culture and kinship.
• History: studies past events; sociology uses historical data to understand social patterns and change. History describes unique events while sociology generalises.
• Psychology: studies individual mind and behaviour; sociology studies group behaviour. Social psychology joins them.
• Economics: studies production, distribution and consumption; sociology studies the social context of economic behaviour, such as class and poverty.
• Political science: studies state, government and power; sociology studies the social basis of politics, such as parties, voting and social movements.
• Geography and demography: population, migration and environment affect social life.
• Law: laws are formal social control, and sociology studies how law relates to society.
• Computer science and IT: sociology explains the social effect and use of technology.

Sociology is the most general of the social sciences, using their findings while giving the whole picture of society, so the relationship is one of mutual dependence.

Culture is the complex whole of knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs and habits acquired by humans as members of society (E. B. Tylor). It is the "way of life" of a people.

Culture as a fundamental concept of society

• Components: material culture (tools, buildings) and non-material culture (values, norms, language, beliefs, symbols).
• Learned and shared: acquired through socialization, not inherited.
• Transmitted from generation to generation and cumulative.
• Gives identity and guides behaviour through norms and values, so social order is maintained.
• Adaptive and changing, through invention, diffusion and contact.
• Society and culture are inseparable: society is the group of people, culture is their way of life.

Impact of ICT on culture today

1. Diffusion: global media and the internet spread music, film, food and fashion instantly, producing a global culture.
2. Cultural change in language and habits: English, emojis and online slang influence local language; lifestyles become digital.
3. Preservation and promotion: digital archives, YouTube and websites document and promote local languages, festivals and arts.
4. New culture: online communities, memes, influencers and digital etiquette.
5. Homogenization and erosion: local traditions may be weakened (cultural imperialism).
6. Cultural lag: technology moves faster than values and laws, causing issues such as cyber crime and privacy loss.
7. Identity: diaspora Nepalis stay connected with their culture online.

Conclusion: ICT is a strong agent of cultural change, and societies should accept its benefits while protecting their cultural heritage.

Development of the cultural universe

Culture began when early humans developed tools, fire, language and symbols. Over time, agriculture (settled life), the invention of writing, towns, trade, religion and states gave rise to complex civilizations such as those of the Indus, Nile, Mesopotamia and China. Industrialization, printing and science then accelerated cultural growth, and today the digital age produces a global culture. Culture is cumulative: each generation adds to what it inherits through invention (new things) and discovery.

Diffusion around the world

Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural traits from one society to another through:

• Trade and travel (Silk Road, spices).
• Migration and conquest, which carried religions, languages and customs.
• Colonialism and missionary activity.
• Modern media and technology: printing, radio, television, internet and social media.
• Education, tourism and international organisations.

Types: direct (contact), indirect (through a third party or media), and forced (conquest). Examples: Buddhism spreading from Nepal and India across Asia, English as a global language, and the spread of cricket, cinema and fast food.

Codes are the rules and standards of behaviour that guide social life; sanctions are the rewards or punishments that enforce them.

Codes in social life

• Folkways: everyday customs, such as greeting with namaste and manners.
• Mores: strongly held moral norms, such as honesty and respect for elders; violation is serious.
• Customs and traditions: festival and ritual practices.
• Laws: formal codes made by the state.
• Etiquette, fashion and religious or moral codes (dharma).
• Professional codes of ethics.

Sanctions

• Positive: praise, reward, promotion, medals and social approval.
• Negative: criticism, ridicule, fines, imprisonment and boycott.
• Formal: by the state or organisations (courts, police, school rules).
• Informal: by family, peers and community (gossip, smile, disapproval).

Economic institutions are organised systems through which a society produces, distributes and consumes goods and services.

Key features

1. Production, distribution and consumption of goods and services are the main functions.
2. Division of labour and specialisation of work.
3. Property and ownership rules (private, public, communal).
4. Exchange system: money, markets, trade and banking.
5. Norms and rules: contracts, laws, taxes and business ethics.
6. Types of economic systems: capitalism, socialism, mixed economy. Nepal has a mixed economy.
7. Interdependence with family, politics and education.
8. Resource allocation of scarce resources.
9. They change with technology and development, from agrarian to industrial to knowledge economies.

Examples are banks, markets, factories, cooperatives, farms and the stock exchange.

Social stratification is the ranking of people into hierarchical layers according to power, wealth and prestige. In Nepal it is seen in the following forms.

1. Caste: the Hindu varna and caste hierarchy, formalised by the Muluki Ain of 1854, ranks Brahmin and Chhetri at the top, then Vaishya-like groups, Janajati, and Dalits (formerly "untouchables") at the bottom. Untouchability is legally abolished but discrimination persists.
2. Class: divisions by wealth, land, occupation and education, such as landlords, business owners, salaried middle class, and landless labourers and poor farmers.
3. Ethnicity: indigenous nationalities (Janajati), Madhesi, Muslim and other groups have unequal access to power and resources.
4. Gender: patriarchy gives men more property rights, decision-making and opportunity.
5. Region: gaps between Kathmandu and remote hill, mountain and Terai areas.

Changes: education, migration, inclusion policy, democracy and remittance increase mobility, and the Constitution of 2015 guarantees equality, although inequality remains.

Globalization is the process of increasing worldwide interconnection among economies, politics and cultures.

Features

1. Economic integration: free trade, global markets, multinational companies and capital flow.
2. Technological advancement: the internet, satellites and mobile phones connect the world.
3. Cultural exchange: global spread of food, music, language and fashion.
4. Mobility of people: migration, tourism and student exchange.
5. Political interdependence: UN, WTO and regional groups; global governance.
6. Information flow: instant news and shared knowledge.
7. Interdependence in problems: climate change and pandemics.

Changing world

• A "global village" where distance matters less.
• New jobs and outsourcing, but also inequality and job loss.
• Changing family, gender roles and lifestyles; urbanization.
• Hybrid culture and some loss of local identity.
• More awareness of rights and democracy.

Importance of sociology in social policy

1. Identifies and analyses social problems such as poverty, unemployment and discrimination.
2. Supplies reliable research data and statistics for planning.
3. Helps understand the needs of different groups (women, Dalits, children, elderly, disabled).
4. Helps design inclusive and culturally suitable programmes.
5. Predicts social consequences of policies before implementation.
6. Monitors and evaluates programmes and their results.
7. Promotes community participation and social justice.
8. Supports solving conflict and improving social harmony.
9. Guides development, health, education and population policy.

IT experts build systems used by society, so they need sociological knowledge for the following reasons.

1. Understanding users: systems must fit users' culture, language, class, age and gender; a sociological view makes software usable and inclusive.
2. Awareness of the digital divide: ensures technology does not widen inequality between rich and poor, urban and rural.
3. Ethical and responsible practice: understanding privacy, surveillance, cyber crime, bias in algorithms and social media effects.
4. Understanding social impact: automation and AI change jobs, relationships and institutions.
5. Teamwork and organisation: knowledge of group behaviour, communication and workplace culture.
6. Policy and development: helps design e-governance, e-health and education systems that address real social needs.
7. Social responsibility: to use skills for solving community problems and not only for profit.

Hence technical skill combined with sociological understanding allows IT experts to contribute positively to society.

Family is a group of people related by blood, marriage or adoption, living together and cooperating to raise children.

Key features of the family in Nepal

1. Universality: found in every society and caste.
2. Emotional basis: based on love, affection and sacrifice.
3. Limited size: a small, primary group, though joint families are common in rural areas.
4. Kinship and common residence: members usually live together, often as joint or extended families.
5. Patriarchal and patrilineal: male head, descent and inheritance through the father, though changing.
6. Economic unit: shares production and consumption; agriculture and household work are done together.
7. Socializing role: teaches language, religion, culture and values.
8. Religious and cultural role: observance of rituals, festivals and rites like bratabandha, marriage and death rites.
9. Responsibility and care for children and the elderly.
10. Change: nuclearisation, migration and women's greater role.

Globalization is the worldwide integration of economies, politics and cultures. It has reshaped traditional social structures (family, economy, stratification, polity and religion) in many ways.

1. Family and kinship. Joint families give way to nuclear and migrant-split families; remittance and migration change authority, roles and care of elders. Marriage becomes more individual choice, later and less arranged.

2. Economic structure. Subsistence agriculture declines as market, wage labour, services and outsourcing grow; multinational firms, e-commerce and remittance change livelihood and consumption patterns.

3. Social stratification. Class based on income and education gains importance over rigid caste and ascribed status, though global inequality and the digital divide create new hierarchies.

4. Gender roles. Greater education and employment of women reduce patriarchal control, but new insecurity also appears.

5. Culture and identity. Global media spreads consumer culture, English and foreign festivals; hybrid cultures and loss of local languages and traditions occur.

6. Political structure. Traditional authority weakens; global norms of democracy and human rights, NGOs and international bodies influence the state.

7. Community and religion. Local, face-to-face communities weaken with urbanization and virtual networks; religious practice becomes more individual and sometimes more rigid in reaction.

8. Education and knowledge. Formal and online education replaces informal community learning.

Conclusion: globalization modernises and opens societies but weakens traditional bonds, creating both opportunity and inequality and requiring protection of local culture.

Auguste Comte (1798-1857), the father of sociology, proposed that human thought and society evolve through three successive stages. This is his Law of Three Stages.

1. Theological (fictional) stage. People explain events by supernatural beings and gods. It has three sub-stages: fetishism (spirits in objects), polytheism (many gods) and monotheism (one God). Society is dominated by priests and military rule. Example: ancient people believing floods, earthquakes or disease are the anger of gods.

2. Metaphysical (abstract) stage. Supernatural beings are replaced by abstract forces such as "nature", "essence" or "reason". It is a transition stage, marked by questioning of authority and the rise of lawyers and philosophers. Example: explaining life by "vital force", or political ideas of natural rights, as in the French Revolution era.

3. Positive (scientific) stage. Explanation depends on observation, experiment and scientific laws. Society is guided by scientists and industrialists, and sociology itself, the "queen of sciences", belongs here. Example: explaining disease through germs and vaccines, or earthquakes by tectonic plates.

Illustration of evolution. Knowledge moves from imagination to abstraction to evidence, and social organisation moves from military and religious order to industrial, rational order. Each science passes the stages at a different speed, mathematics first and sociology last.

Criticism: the stages are not strictly separate (beliefs and science coexist today, for example in Nepal), the theory is evolutionary and Eurocentric, and it underrates non-rational aspects. Nevertheless it influenced the scientific study of society.

Social policy means government plans and laws to solve social problems and improve welfare. Sociology guides it in these ways.

1. Problem identification. Research and surveys show the existence, extent and causes of poverty, unemployment, gender violence, caste discrimination, migration and drug abuse.

2. Evidence and data. Census, surveys and case studies give a scientific base for decisions, instead of opinion.

3. Understanding social groups and culture. It explains values, norms and social structure, so policies fit local conditions. Example: policies for Dalits, indigenous groups and women need understanding of their position.

4. Designing inclusive policy. Sociological studies of stratification support inclusion, reservation and affirmative action; in Nepal, laws against untouchability and the inclusion provisions of the Constitution.

5. Forecasting consequences. Social impact assessment shows how a policy may affect families, communities and the poor.

6. Implementation and community participation. It advises how to involve communities, local government and NGOs.

7. Monitoring and evaluation. It measures whether programmes achieve goals and who benefits or loses.

8. Specific fields: education, health, population, housing, labour and migration, disaster management, and digital policy.

9. Promoting social justice and harmony by finding the roots of conflict.

Conclusion: policies built on sociological knowledge are more realistic, equitable and effective.

Sociology is the scientific study of human society, social relationships, groups, institutions and social change. Comte coined the term, and it focuses on how people interact, organise and are shaped by society.

Relevance to IT professionals

1. Understanding users and society: software must suit different cultures, languages, classes and ages.
2. Social impact of technology: helps understand effects of social media, automation, AI and the internet on jobs, relations and privacy.
3. Digital divide and inclusion: awareness of unequal access leads to inclusive design.
4. Ethics and responsibility: about privacy, cyber crime, bias and misuse.
5. Teamwork and workplace: understanding group behaviour, communication and organisational culture.
6. Development projects: helps in e-governance, e-learning and community-based IT solutions.

Sociology studies society and group behaviour, and it interacts closely with other social sciences.

History. History studies past events in time order, while sociology studies patterns and regularities in society. Sociology uses historical records to explain how social institutions like family or caste developed, and history uses sociological concepts (class, power) to interpret events. Historical sociology joins both. History tends to describe unique events, sociology tends to generalise.

Psychology. Psychology studies the individual mind, emotions and behaviour; sociology studies group behaviour and social structure. Both study socialization and personality: psychology its internal development, sociology the social influence. Social psychology is the border field studying how individuals are influenced by groups, for example in attitudes, prejudice and leadership.

Mutual benefit: each provides data and methods to the other, though each has its own focus and level of analysis.

Culture is the complex whole of knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs and other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (E. B. Tylor). It is the learned, shared way of life of a group, transmitted from generation to generation.

Types of culture

1. Material culture: tangible, physical objects such as tools, buildings, clothes, machines and computers.
2. Non-material culture: intangible elements such as beliefs, values, norms, language, customs, knowledge and symbols.

Other classifications

• Dominant culture and subculture: the main culture of a society and smaller groups with distinct features within it, such as youth or ethnic subcultures.
• Counterculture: a culture opposing the dominant values (e.g. hippies).
• High culture and popular (mass) culture: classical arts versus mass-consumed media.
• Folk culture: traditional culture of small rural communities.
• Ideal and real culture: what people say should be done versus what they actually do.
• Global/digital culture: shared worldwide through media and the internet.

Social control is the set of methods, rules and pressures by which a society regulates the behaviour of its members and ensures conformity to norms, preventing deviance and keeping order.

Mechanisms of social control

1. Informal means (unwritten, by primary groups)

• Folkways, customs and mores: guide everyday conduct.
• Family, peer group and community: approval, gossip, ridicule and shame.
• Religion and morality: beliefs about sin and virtue, fear of God and karma.
• Public opinion, social values and traditions.
• Socialization: internalising norms so people control themselves.

2. Formal means (written, by organisations)

• Law, courts and police: fines, imprisonment.
• Government and administration; rules of school or office.
• Education system and mass media.
• Rewards and punishments: positive sanctions (awards, promotion) and negative sanctions (penalty, expulsion).

Socialization is the lifelong process by which an individual learns the culture, values, norms, roles and skills of society and develops a self and personality, becoming a participating member. It happens through agents such as family, peer groups, school, religion and mass media.

Stages of socialization

1. Primary socialization (childhood): in the family, the child learns language, basic habits and norms, and develops self-image. It is the most important stage.
2. Secondary socialization: in school, peer group and community the child learns wider roles, discipline and social rules.
3. Anticipatory socialization: learning in advance the roles one expects to take, such as a student preparing for a job or marriage.
4. Adult socialization: learning new roles of work, marriage and parenthood.
5. Resocialization: replacing old norms with new ones, as in a prison, army or migration to a new country.

Cooley's looking-glass self and Mead's stages (imitation, play, game) explain how the self develops. In old age, one learns roles of retirement and dependency.

Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups in society into layers (strata) according to unequal wealth, power and prestige. Its main forms are slavery, estate, caste and class. It is social, ancient, universal but variable, and continues across generations.

Role in shaping society

1. Life chances: determines access to education, health, income, justice and opportunity.
2. Social structure and order: creates ranks and statuses that organise society (functionalists say it ensures the most able fill important positions).
3. Inequality and conflict: conflict theorists (Marx) see it as exploitation causing class struggle and tension.
4. Identity and lifestyle: shapes attitudes, culture, dress, marriage choices and group belonging.
5. Social mobility: open systems encourage achievement; closed systems like caste restrict it.
6. Political power: powerful groups influence laws and resources.
7. Social change: movements by disadvantaged groups for inclusion and rights lead to reform.

Example: caste, class, gender and ethnic stratification in Nepal affect access to resources and are targeted by inclusion policies.

Postmodernity is a condition of contemporary society, emerging after the mid-20th century, marked by the decline of modern certainties (progress, reason, grand narratives), as described by Lyotard, Baudrillard, Giddens and Bauman. It is characterised by consumerism, media saturation, globalization, pluralism and fragmented identities.

Contribution to social transformations

1. Questioning grand narratives: doubt in a single truth or ideology opens space for many views and voices.
2. Cultural pluralism: acceptance of diversity in gender, ethnicity, sexuality and lifestyle; marginalised groups gain recognition.
3. Fluid identity: identity is chosen and shaped by consumption and media, not fixed by class or caste.
4. Media and technology: simulation, social media and virtual reality blur the real and the image (Baudrillard).
5. Consumer society: lifestyle and brands define status.
6. Changes in work and family: flexible work, diverse family forms and individualisation.
7. Globalization of culture and mixing of local and global.

Criticism: it can cause uncertainty, relativism, and loss of shared values.

The family is the basic social institution and it shapes the other institutions in the following ways.

1. Foundation of society: it reproduces the population and provides new members for all institutions.
2. Education: the family is the first school; it prepares children for formal education, and family attitudes affect school attainment.
3. Economy: it acts as a unit of production and consumption, provides labour and transfers property by inheritance; family businesses and remittance support the economy.
4. Religion: it passes on religious beliefs and performs rituals and festivals.
5. Polity: it teaches obedience to authority, civic values and political attitudes; kinship ties influence voting and leadership, as in dynastic politics.
6. Social control and morality: it teaches norms and regulates sexual behaviour through marriage.
7. Stratification: it assigns class, caste and ethnicity, which affect life chances.
8. Health and welfare: it provides care for children, the sick and elderly.
9. Culture: it transmits language, customs and values.

Because the family links individuals to other institutions, changes in it, such as nuclearisation and migration, in turn change education, economy and polity.

Social media (Facebook, TikTok, YouTube, Instagram, Messenger, Viber) is now part of daily life for Nepali youth, driven by cheap mobile data, smartphones and remittance-funded connectivity. It shapes their behaviour in both positive and negative ways.

Positive effects

• Information and learning: Students use YouTube, Facebook groups and online classes for study material, scholarships and exam notices, which was especially important during COVID-19 lockdowns.
• Civic and political awareness: Youth discuss politics, corruption and public issues online. Campaigns such as #BoycottBadService-style protests, the Gen Z protests and online fundraising for disaster relief show their mobilising power.
• Livelihood and entrepreneurship: Online shops on Facebook and Instagram, freelancing, content creation, and digital marketing give young people income opportunities.
• Connection: Families separated by foreign employment stay in touch, and youth share Nepali culture, music and language with the diaspora.

Negative effects

• Addiction and time loss: Long hours on reels and games reduce study time, sleep and physical activity.
• Mental health: Comparison with others, cyberbullying, and fear of missing out cause anxiety and low self-esteem.
• Misinformation and hate speech: Rumours, fake news and communal or caste-based abuse spread quickly and can fuel violence.
• Cybercrime and privacy risks: Online fraud, sextortion, harassment, identity theft and misuse of photos mainly affect young women.
• Cultural change: Imitation of foreign trends and consumerism, and weakened face-to-face relationships and traditional values.

Conclusion: Social media is a powerful tool that can inform and empower Nepali youth, but without digital literacy, parental guidance, and effective cyber laws (the Electronic Transactions Act and related rules) it can harm behaviour and well-being. Balanced, responsible use should be promoted by schools, families and the state.