Concept of Public Management

Public management is the process of planning, organising, directing, coordinating, controlling and accounting for public resources and public affairs in order to deliver public goods and services to citizens efficiently, effectively, economically and equitably. It is the application of management principles and techniques to the activities of the state and its agencies.

Public management is broader than public administration. Traditional public administration, following Woodrow Wilson and Max Weber, emphasised legality, hierarchy, rules, neutrality and procedure — it was "process-oriented". Public management, by contrast, is "result-oriented": it focuses on performance, outcomes, citizen satisfaction, value for money and accountability for results. It draws on the ideas of the New Public Management (NPM) associated with David Osborne, Ted Gaebler, Christopher Hood and Michael Barzelay — namely market orientation, competition, contracting out, decentralisation, managerial autonomy, performance measurement and "steering rather than rowing".

Its key features are:

1. Publicness — it serves the public interest, not private profit; the citizen is both owner and customer.
2. Service delivery orientation — the test of success is the quality, timeliness and accessibility of services.
3. Efficiency and effectiveness — optimum use of scarce resources to achieve stated objectives.
4. Accountability and transparency — answerability to the legislature, the auditor, the citizen and the media.
5. Equity and inclusiveness — services must reach the poor, women, Dalits, Janajatis, Madhesis and remote areas.
6. Rule of law and ethical conduct — decisions must be lawful, impartial and free from corruption.
7. Participation and partnership — involvement of citizens, civil society and the private sector in governance.

In short, public management is the art and science of managing public business so that the state fulfils its constitutional and developmental obligations to the people.

Challenges of Public Management in Nepal

Nepal has adopted public management reform through the Civil Service Act 2049 (1993), the Local Government Operation Act 2074 (2017), the federal Constitution of 2072 (2015), the Good Governance (Management and Operation) Act 2064 (2007), citizen charters, e-governance and the National Public Service Charter. Despite these, public management in Nepal faces the following challenges:

1. Political instability and instability of leadership. Frequent changes of government, ministers and secretaries mean that policies, priorities and transfer decisions change before reforms mature. This destroys institutional memory and continuity of plans.

2. Weak institutional capacity. Line ministries and local levels lack adequate skilled manpower, technical expertise, equipment and reliable data. Many local governments have not been able to prepare and implement evidence-based plans and budgets.

3. Corruption and impunity. Nepal ranks poorly in international corruption perception indices. Rent-seeking, nepotism, favouritism in recruitment and transfer, and commission-taking in procurement undermine efficiency, equity and public trust.

4. Politicisation of the civil service. Political appointments, partisan transfers, unionism and "cadre-based" postings weaken meritocracy, neutrality and professionalism. The concept of an impartial, career-based bureaucracy is not fully realised.

5. Poor accountability and weak oversight. The Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority (CIAA), the Office of the Auditor General (OAG) and parliamentary committees lack the capacity and follow-up mechanism to enforce accountability. Audit irregularities are repeated year after year without punishment.

6. Bureaucratic red tape and centralisation. Despite federalism, many decisions remain centralised in Singha Durbar. Lengthy procedures, multiple approvals and "no objection" practices increase the cost and time of service delivery to citizens.

7. Ineffective service delivery and citizen dissatisfaction. Citizens still face difficulty in obtaining citizenship, land registration, passports, driving licences, business registration and social security benefits. Queues, middlemen and hidden costs are common.

8. Weak fiscal discipline and resource gap. Low capital expenditure, poor project selection, cost overruns and duplication of projects reduce the development impact of limited public funds. Dependence on foreign aid and loans remains high.

9. Coordination failure in federalism. The three tiers of government — federal, provincial and local — often work at cross purposes. Unclear division of functions, overlapping jurisdictions and weak intergovernmental fiscal transfer mechanisms create conflict and duplication.

10. Digital divide and weak e-governance. Though e-services are expanding, poor internet connectivity, lack of digital literacy, unreliable power supply and inadequate cybersecurity limit their reach, especially in rural and remote areas.

11. Lack of performance culture. Promotion and reward are based largely on seniority and personal connections rather than performance. Performance appraisal systems exist but are not used to reward good performers or sanction poor ones.

12. Weak monitoring and evaluation. Projects are approved without baseline data, and monitoring is ritualistic. There is little use of evaluation findings for policy correction.

13. Shortage of ethical leadership and citizen awareness. Both public officials and citizens often lack awareness of rights, duties and ethical standards. Demand-side accountability is weak.

14. Impact of transition and disaster. The post-conflict transition, federal restructuring, COVID-19 pandemic, earthquakes and floods have stretched the already weak public management system.

Way Forward

To meet these challenges Nepal needs: stable political commitment to reform; merit-based recruitment and promotion; strict enforcement of anti-corruption laws; full implementation of federalism with clear functional assignment; performance-based budgeting and management; expansion of e-governance and one-door service centres; strengthening of local governments' capacity; effective monitoring and evaluation; and active citizen participation and social accountability. Public management reform must be treated as a continuous process, not a one-time event.

Conclusion: Public management in Nepal has made legal and institutional progress, but its practice still suffers from politicisation, corruption, weak capacity and poor accountability. Only sustained political will, professional civil service and active citizenship can transform it into a citizen-centred, result-oriented system.

Causes of Increasing Cyber Crime in Nepal

1. Rapid expansion of internet and mobile users – Cheap data packs and smartphones have brought millions online, many without digital literacy, creating a large pool of easy victims.
2. Low digital literacy and awareness – Most users do not know about phishing, OTP fraud, fake links, or privacy settings, making them easy targets.
3. Weak enforcement and low conviction rate – Few trained cyber personnel, outdated investigation tools and slow judicial process encourage criminals, as the risk of punishment is low.
4. Anonymity and cross-border nature – VPNs, fake IDs and servers located abroad make tracing offenders difficult; Nepal's open border with India adds to the problem.
5. Financial gain and organised fraud – Online lending, betting, cryptocurrency and "digital arrest" scams are highly profitable with small investment.
6. Weak institutional capacity – Understaffed Cyber Bureau, lack of forensic labs and poor coordination among Nepal Police, banks and ISPs.
7. Social media misuse – Fake accounts, cyberbullying, revenge porn, defamation and blackmail have grown with platforms like Facebook, TikTok and Instagram.
8. Poverty, unemployment and weak moral education – Youth are lured into easy money through hacking, SIM-swap and card fraud.
9. Weak data protection regime – Absence of a comprehensive data privacy law means personal data of citizens is poorly secured and easily leaked.
10. Growing digital transactions – Mobile banking, QR payments and e-commerce have increased the attack surface for financial cyber crime.

Efforts Made by the Government of Nepal to Minimise Cyber Crime

Legal and policy measures:

• Electronic Transactions Act, 2063 (2008) and its amendment (2075) — criminalises unauthorised access, hacking, data theft, online fraud, publication of illegal electronic material, with fines and imprisonment.
• Cyber Crime (Offence and Punishment) related provisions under the Act, plus National Penal Code 2074 covering offences like identity theft and obscenity.
• National Cyber Security Policy, 2072 (2015) — provides a framework for secure cyberspace, critical infrastructure protection and capacity building.
• Draft of a separate Cyber Security Act and Data Protection Bill under discussion to address gaps in the existing law.
• Telecommunications Act and ISP licensing conditions requiring ISPs to maintain logs and block illegal content.

Institutional measures:

• Establishment of the Cyber Bureau under Nepal Police (2073 B.S.) with a dedicated helpline (100/1114/1550) for complaints.
• Cyber Crime Investigation Unit in all seven provinces and district-level focal desks.
• National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) under the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for monitoring and incident response.
• Computer Emergency Response Team (npCERT) for handling cyber incidents and issuing alerts.
• Coordination committees comprising MoCIT, Nepal Police, Nepal Rastra Bank, ISPs and telecom operators.

Awareness and capacity building:

• Cyber awareness campaigns in schools, colleges and through media; "Cyber Safety Week" and digital literacy programmes.
• Training of police, prosecutors and judges on cyber law and digital forensics.
• Collaboration with banks to warn customers about OTP and loan-app frauds; KYC and transaction-limit rules issued by NRB.

Technical and international cooperation:

• Development of forensic labs and upgrading of the Cyber Bureau's technical capacity.
• Participation in international forums (ITU, INTERPOL, Budapest Convention discussions) and bilateral cooperation with India, China and others for cross-border investigation.
• Blocking of illegal websites and apps on the recommendation of the Cyber Bureau.

Conclusion: Cyber crime in Nepal is rising due to fast digitalisation without matching literacy, law enforcement and technology. The government has taken legal, institutional and awareness measures, but effective implementation, adequate manpower, a modern data protection law and stronger international cooperation are still needed to control it.

Food Security in Nepal: Current Situation and Measures

Meaning of Food Security

Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. It rests on four pillars: availability, access, utilization and stability.

Current Situation of Food Security in Nepal

1. Overall status. Nepal has improved from a "serious" to a "moderate" level of hunger on the Global Hunger Index in recent years, yet food insecurity remains widespread. A large share of households — roughly one-fourth to one-third in many surveys — is reported as mildly or moderately food insecure, with the Karnali and Sudurpaschim provinces worst affected.

2. Regional and seasonal disparity. Food insecurity is concentrated in the Hill and Mountain regions, especially Karnali, Achham, Bajura, Humla, Jumla, Mugu and Dolpa. Remote districts face seasonal food shortages (the "lean season"), and food deficits are met through portering and subsidized rice depots.

3. Dependence on imports. Nepal is a net food-importing country. Cereal imports — especially rice, maize and wheat — have been rising sharply, and the trade deficit in food and live animals is large. This makes food availability vulnerable to global price shocks and border disruptions.

4. Low agricultural productivity. Agriculture still employs about two-thirds of the population but contributes only around one-fourth of GDP. Fragmented holdings, low irrigation coverage (about one-third of arable land), weak extension services, and increasing fallow land depress output.

5. Poverty and low purchasing power. Food insecurity in Nepal is largely an access problem rather than only a production problem. Poor households cannot buy nutritious food even when markets have supplies. High food inflation erodes real incomes.

6. Nutrition challenges. Despite falling stunting rates, child malnutrition remains high — stunting affects roughly one-third of children under five, with anaemia and wasting also significant. This is a food utilization and care problem.

7. Climate and disaster risks. Floods, landslides, droughts, hailstorms and the 2015 earthquake have damaged crops and stored grain, while climate change threatens monsoon reliability.

8. Recent shocks. The COVID-19 pandemic, the Russia–Ukraine war (fertilizer and fuel price hikes), and global supply chain disruptions pushed up food prices and worsened access for poor and vulnerable groups.

Measures to Address Food Insecurity

A. Production-side measures

1. Expand irrigation and promote year-round cropping.
2. Subsidize quality seeds, fertilizers and agricultural credit for small farmers.
3. Promote land consolidation, cooperatives and contract farming.
4. Encourage climate-resilient and drought-tolerant crop varieties.
5. Develop agro-forestry, livestock and fishery as supplementary income sources.

B. Access and distribution measures 6. Strengthen the Food Management and Trading Company and maintain strategic food reserves. 7. Continue subsidized rice depots in remote, food-deficit districts. 8. Improve rural road connectivity and market infrastructure to link farms to markets. 9. Expand targeted social protection — cash transfers, food-for-work and school feeding programmes.

C. Nutrition measures 10. Scale up nutrition-sensitive programmes (multi-sector nutrition plan, vitamin A supplementation, iron–folic acid, iodized salt). 11. Promote kitchen gardening, home-based food diversification and nutrition education.

D. Stability and resilience measures 12. Strengthen early warning systems and disaster preparedness for agriculture. 13. Promote climate adaptation, crop insurance and post-harvest storage. 14. Diversify trade sources and reduce over-dependence on a few suppliers.

E. Institutional and policy measures 15. Implement the Right to Food and Food Sovereignty Act, 2075 effectively. 16. Improve coordination among federal, provincial and local governments. 17. Enhance agricultural research, extension and farmer training. 18. Generate reliable food security data through periodic surveys for evidence-based planning.

Conclusion

Nepal's food insecurity is a multi-dimensional problem of low productivity, weak access, poor nutrition and climate vulnerability, concentrated in the remote hills and mountains. A coordinated strategy combining irrigation and input support, strong food reserves and distribution, targeted social protection, nutrition programmes and climate resilience — backed by effective implementation of the Right to Food Act — is essential to ensure food security for all.

Answer

1. Concept

Social protection means the set of policies and programmes that reduce poverty and vulnerability by preventing, managing and overcoming situations that adversely affect people's well-being — chiefly loss or interruption of income, ill health, old age, disability and unemployment. In Nepal it rests on constitutional rights and a mix of contributory and non-contributory schemes.

2. Principles of Social Protection

Drawing on ILO Recommendation No. 202 (2012) on Social Protection Floors and international good practice, the guiding principles are:

• Universality — protection for all, with no one left behind.
• Non-discrimination and equality — no exclusion on grounds of caste, ethnicity, gender, religion, disability or region.
• Adequacy — benefits sufficient to secure basic income security and essential health care.
• Rights-based entitlement — statutory, enforceable rights rather than charity or executive discretion.
• Solidarity and collective financing — risk-pooling through social insurance and progressive taxation.
• Sustainability — fiscal and actuarial sustainability over the long term.
• Progressive realization — a defined floor, extended in coverage and adequacy over time.
• Social dialogue and participation — involvement of workers, employers and civil society.
• Transparency, accountability and good governance — clear rules, grievance redressal, no leakage.
• Gender responsiveness — recognition of unpaid care work and maternity protection.
• Efficiency and non-duplication — coordinated, integrated delivery.
• Dignity — delivery that respects the dignity of the recipient.

3. Current Provisions in Use in Nepal

• Constitution of Nepal 2072: Article 42 (Right to Social Justice), Article 43 (Right to Social Security), and Directive Principles under Article 51.
• Social Security Act 2074 (2018) and the First Amendment Act 2075 — contributory schemes under the Social Security Fund (medical care, health and maternity, accident and disability, dependent family, old age).
• National Social Protection Policy 2071 (2014).
• Social Security Allowance Programme — old-age allowance (70+; 60+ for Dalit and Karnali residents), single women's allowance, disability allowance (categories A–D), child grant (Dalit children under five, Karnali, etc.), and allowances for endangered ethnic groups.
• Prime Minister Employment Programme 2075 — 100 days of guaranteed employment.
• Right to Food and Food Sovereignty Act 2075; Right to Education Act 2075; free basic health services and the Aama Suraksha Programme.
• Labour Act 2074 (provident fund, gratuity, maternity leave); Foreign Employment Act 2064 (migrant worker welfare fund); Civil Service Act (pension and gratuity).

4. Weaknesses of the Present Provisions

1. Fragmentation and duplication — more than a dozen schemes run by different ministries (MoWCSW, MoLESS, MoF, MoHA) with no single apex coordinating body; beneficiaries and budgets overlap.
2. Low coverage — the contributory Social Security Fund covers mainly the formal sector; over 60% of the workforce is informal and remains outside contributory protection. Migrant workers are largely uncovered.
3. Inadequate benefit levels — the old-age allowance, even after recent increases, is far below the cost of basic needs, and benefits are not indexed to inflation or the minimum wage.
4. Weak legal entitlement — many schemes are programme- or policy-based and discretionary, not statutory rights; they can be altered or withdrawn by executive decision.
5. Targeting errors — exclusion errors (eligible persons left out) and inclusion errors (ineligible persons included) because of outdated, unverified data and the absence of a unified database linked to the National ID.
6. Implementation weaknesses — weak capacity at local levels, payment delays, leakage and ghost beneficiaries, and low awareness among eligible groups.
7. Fiscal unsustainability — heavy reliance on the government budget; the contributory scheme has grown slower than expected; no regular actuarial valuation; donor dependence for some programmes.
8. Federalism coordination gaps — unclear division of roles among federal, provincial and local governments, producing both duplication and gaps.
9. Gender and disability gaps — women in the informal sector and unpaid care workers are not covered; maternity protection is confined largely to the formal sector; disability allowance categories leave many out.
10. Weak monitoring and evaluation — no integrated MIS, no outcome-based evaluation, and weak grievance redressal.
11. Limited social dialogue — trade unions, employers' organizations and civil society have little say in policy design.
12. Non-ratification of ILO Convention 102 — Nepal has not ratified the Social Security (Minimum Standards) Convention, 1952, so domestic law is not aligned with international minimum standards.

5. Measures for Improvement

1. Enact a comprehensive, rights-based Social Security Act consolidating all schemes and legally guaranteeing a social protection floor.
2. Universalize the non-contributory basic floor — universal old-age pension, universal child grant, and disability allowance based on the social model.
3. Extend contributory social security to the informal sector — flexible contribution rates, government matching contributions, digital enrolment and portable benefits.
4. Build a single integrated social protection registry/MIS linked to the National ID and civil registration, with real-time updating and interoperability.
5. Improve targeting — proxy means testing with verified data, periodic re-verification, and a strong grievance redressal mechanism.
6. Ensure adequacy — index benefits to inflation and the minimum wage, and conduct periodic actuarial valuation of the Social Security Fund.
7. Strengthen fiscal space — progressive taxation, earmarked contributions, and prudent investment of the Social Security Fund.
8. Institutional reform — establish a single apex coordinating body and clearly define federal–provincial–local roles, with capacity building of local governments.
9. Promote social dialogue — institutionalize the participation of trade unions, employers and civil society.
10. Gender-responsive design — recognize unpaid care work, extend maternity benefits to informal workers, and remove barriers for women.
11. Digital delivery — direct bank or mobile transfer to reduce leakage, backed by awareness campaigns.
12. Ratify ILO Convention 102 and align domestic law with international minimum standards; strengthen monitoring and evaluation with outcome indicators.

6. Conclusion

Nepal's social protection framework is broad on paper but shallow in practice — fragmented, under-funded, inadequately targeted and weakly governed. Anchoring it firmly in the principles of universality, adequacy, rights and social dialogue, and moving towards a legally guaranteed social protection floor with an integrated delivery system, is essential to make social protection an effective instrument of social justice and inclusive development.

Present Administrative Structure of Nepal

Nepal is a federal democratic republic with three tiers of government — federal, provincial and local — as provisioned by the Constitution of Nepal, 2072 (2015). The administrative structure at each tier is as follows:

1. Federal (Central) Level

• The President is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government, heading the Council of Ministers.
• The Federal Parliament is bicameral — the House of Representatives (275 members) and the National Assembly (59 members).
• The Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers (OPMCM) functions as the central executive body.
• Ministries (currently around 21) and their departments, directorates and offices carry out federal administration.
• The Supreme Court heads the judiciary; the Constitutional Council, Public Service Commission, National Planning Commission, Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority, Auditor General, etc., are constitutional bodies.
• The Chief Secretary heads the federal civil service; the Secretary heads each ministry.

2. Provincial Level

• Each of the 7 provinces has a Provincial Head (Governor) as the constitutional head and a Chief Minister as the head of the provincial government.
• A Provincial Assembly (unicameral) legislates on provincial matters.
• Provincial Ministries, headed by ministers and supported by the Provincial Chief Secretary and secretaries, run provincial administration.
• A High Court in each province heads the provincial judiciary.

3. Local Level

• There are 753 local units — 6 metropolitan cities, 11 sub-metropolitan cities, 276 municipalities and 460 rural municipalities — plus District Coordination Committees in 77 districts.
• Each local unit has an elected Mayor/Chairperson and Deputy Mayor/Vice-Chairperson, a Municipal/Rural Assembly, and a Judicial Committee for local dispute settlement.
• The Chief Administrative Officer (CAO) heads the local administrative wing, supported by section officers and other staff.

Inter-tier coordination is maintained through the Inter-Provincial Council, National Coordination Council, Provincial Coordination Council, and the District Assembly.

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Reforms Necessary to Make Administration Compatible with Federalism

The present structure still carries strong unitary features. The following reforms are necessary:

1. Legal and Constitutional Reform

• Amend or enact laws to clearly demarcate functions, responsibilities and resources among the three tiers as per Schedules 5–9 of the Constitution.
• Remove overlapping jurisdictions between federal and provincial ministries and between provinces and local units.

2. Restructuring of Ministries and Offices

• Right-size federal ministries and transfer service-delivery offices (education, health, agriculture, land, transport) to provinces and local units.
• Establish a clear "one function — one tier" principle to end duplication.

3. Civil Service Reform

• Create separate federal, provincial and local civil services with their own cadres, recruitment, promotion and transfer rules.
• Ensure adequate staffing of local units — many rural municipalities still lack required technical and administrative personnel.
• Introduce a Federal Civil Service Act replacing the unitary Civil Service Act, 2049.

4. Fiscal Decentralisation

• Strengthen provincial and local revenue bases (property tax, land tax, business tax, service fees).
• Ensure timely and predictable fiscal transfers — conditional, unconditional and special grants — as recommended by the National Natural Resources and Fiscal Commission.
• Build local capacity in budgeting, accounting and auditing.

5. Capacity Building

• Provide training to provincial and local officials in federal laws, planning, project management and e-governance.
• Develop provincial administrative training academies in each province.

6. Coordination and Intergovernmental Relations

• Make the Inter-Provincial Council, National Coordination Council and District Assembly functional and regular.
• Establish dispute-resolution mechanisms for inter-tier conflicts.

7. Administrative Decentralisation and Good Governance

• Devolve decision-making authority, budget and personnel management to local units.
• Ensure transparency, accountability and citizen participation through e-governance, public hearings and social audits.

8. Performance and Accountability Reform

• Link promotion, transfer and rewards to performance.
• Introduce result-based monitoring and evaluation at all tiers.

Conclusion Nepal has made significant constitutional progress toward federalism, but administrative practice still lags. Without legal clarity, separate civil services, fiscal autonomy and capacity building at provincial and local levels, federalism will remain formal rather than functional. Timely and coordinated reform is therefore essential to translate constitutional federalism into effective, citizen-centred governance.

Meaning and Interrelationship of Nation Building and State Building

Nation Building refers to the process of developing a shared sense of identity, unity, loyalty and common destiny among the people living within a territory. It is a socio-cultural and psychological process that seeks to create a "we-feeling" among diverse ethnic, linguistic, religious and regional groups, transforming them into a cohesive political community or nation. It involves promoting common language, culture, symbols, values, history and national consciousness.

State Building refers to the process of constructing and strengthening the institutional structures and machinery of the state — its constitution, legislature, executive, judiciary, bureaucracy, security forces, fiscal system and legal order. It is a politico-administrative and institutional process concerned with building the capacity, legitimacy, authority and effectiveness of state institutions to govern, maintain order, deliver services and exercise sovereignty over a defined territory.

Interrelationship:

1. Complementary and mutually reinforcing: Nation building provides legitimacy and popular loyalty to the state, while state building provides the institutional framework within which national identity is nurtured and protected. A state without a nation lacks legitimacy; a nation without a state lacks legal-institutional expression.
2. Simultaneous processes: In most post-colonial and post-conflict societies (including Nepal after 1990 and 2006), both processes occur together — constitution-making (state building) is accompanied by efforts at inclusive identity formation (nation building).
3. Stability and development: Strong state institutions enable equitable service delivery and rule of law, which foster national unity; a strong national identity reduces secessionist tendencies and strengthens state authority.
4. Failure of one weakens the other: A weak state (failed institutions) cannot forge national unity; conversely, deep ethnic or regional fragmentation undermines state capacity and legitimacy — as seen in cases like Somalia, South Sudan and partly in Nepal's transition.

Differences between Nation Building and State Building

Conclusion: Nation building and state building are two sides of the same coin. Sustainable development and political stability require a balanced approach where strong institutions (state building) and a shared national identity (nation building) progress together — a lesson highly relevant for Nepal's federal democratic transition.

National Security Management in Nepal: Status Review and Way Forward

Introduction. National security management is the legal, institutional and policy framework through which a state identifies, prevents and responds to threats against its sovereignty, territorial integrity, internal order and the security of its people. After the Constitution of Nepal 2072 and federal restructuring, Nepal's security management has both expanded in scope and become more complex.

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1. Existing Status of National Security Management (4 marks)

(a) Constitutional and legal foundation

• Article 51(b)(6) of the Constitution directs the State to pursue a policy of national security based on the protection of national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity and the welfare of citizens.
• Part 17 (Articles 266–269) deals with the Nepal Army, the National Security Council (Rastriya Suraksha Parishad) and emergency provisions. Article 268 constitutes the Council under the chairpersonship of the Prime Minister, with the Defence, Home, Foreign and Finance Ministers and the Chief of Army Staff as members. It recommends on security policy, Army mobilisation and declaration of emergency.
• Supporting laws include the Nepal Army Act 2063, Nepal Police Act 2012 BS, Armed Police Force Act 2058, and the National Security Policy 2073 BS (2016) — Nepal's first formal security policy document.

(b) Institutional structure

Nepal is among the largest troop-contributing countries to UN peacekeeping, which is a major element of its security diplomacy. After federalisation, provinces and local levels also hold constitutional security-related responsibilities, though the Provincial Police envisaged by the Constitution remains unimplemented.

(c) Threat perception

• Traditional: external aggression, unresolved border disputes (Kalapani, Lipulekh, Limpiyadhura), and Nepal's position between two large neighbours.
• Non-traditional: terrorism and extremism, cross-border organised crime, drug and human trafficking, fake currency, cyber crime, money laundering, pandemics, climate-induced disasters, and migration-driven vulnerability.

(d) Critical review

1. No comprehensive National Security Strategy — policy remains reactive and ad hoc rather than long-term and bipartisan.
2. Weak National Security Council functioning — meetings are irregular and decisions often lack follow-up.
3. Fragmented intelligence — NID, Army, Police and APF operate in silos with no integrated sharing mechanism or legal oversight framework.
4. Politicisation of security institutions — appointments, transfers and promotions are often influenced by political affiliation, harming morale and professionalism.
5. Resource constraints — inadequate budget, obsolete equipment, poor training and weak welfare provisions.
6. Open border with India (about 1,880 km) — difficult to regulate, facilitating smuggling and criminal movement.
7. Federal ambiguity — unclear division of security duties among the three tiers.
8. Weak civilian oversight — parliamentary committees on Defence and Home Affairs are not consistently effective; accountability mechanisms are thin.
9. Pending transitional justice — delayed Truth and Reconciliation Commission and Commission of Investigation on Enforced Disappeared Persons sustain a culture of impunity.
10. Inadequate cyber and disaster preparedness — no dedicated cyber security law; disaster response coordination remains weak despite NDRRMA.

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2. Views for Further Improvement (6 marks)

1. Adopt a National Security Strategy. Prepare a long-term, bipartisan strategy covering both traditional and non-traditional threats, with periodic review and broad political consensus.
2. Strengthen the National Security Council. Hold regular meetings, build a professional secretariat, and create a clear mechanism for implementing and monitoring its decisions.
3. Build integrated intelligence architecture. Establish a coordinating body for intelligence sharing among NID, Army, Police and APF, backed by a legal framework for intelligence oversight and data protection.
4. Depoliticise security institutions. Ensure merit-based recruitment, fixed tenure, transparent promotion and strict respect for the chain of command.
5. Increase and rationalise resources. Raise the security budget toward a defined share of GDP; invest in modern equipment, training, insurance and welfare of personnel.
6. Improve border management. Expand border outposts, deploy surveillance technology (CCTV, drones), conduct joint patrols with India and China, and resolve boundary disputes through diplomatic dialogue.
7. Clarify the federal security structure. Implement Provincial Police as per the Constitution, define the roles of province and local levels, and create intergovernmental coordination mechanisms.
8. Deepen civilian oversight and accountability. Activate parliamentary security committees, conduct periodic security audits, and ensure human rights compliance and ombudsman review.
9. Complete transitional justice. Make the TRC and CIEDP functional in line with Supreme Court verdicts and international standards to end impunity and restore trust.
10. Address emerging threats. Enact a dedicated Cyber Security Act, set up a National Cyber Security Centre, and integrate security planning with disaster risk reduction and climate adaptation.
11. Follow balanced diplomacy. Maintain non-alignment, Panchsheel and equidistance between neighbours; continue UN peacekeeping and use soft power (Buddhism, Gurkha heritage, tourism).
12. Prioritise human security. Employment, education, health and social security reduce vulnerability to radicalisation and crime — security must be people-centred, not merely military.
13. Develop strategic research capacity. Strengthen the National Security College, strategic studies programmes and think tanks to support evidence-based policymaking.

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Conclusion. Nepal's national security management is institutionally present but policy-wise fragmented, under-resourced and politically vulnerable. A holistic, professional, accountable and people-centred approach — anchored in a clear national strategy and effective civilian oversight — is essential to protect sovereignty and guarantee human security in a federal democratic republic.

Essence of Political Neutrality

Political neutrality is the principle that a civil servant performs official duties without favouring or opposing any political party, ideology, or leader, and serves whichever government is in power with equal loyalty, competence, and impartiality. Its essence rests on the following elements:

1. Impartial service to the state, not to a party — The bureaucrat's loyalty is to the constitution, laws, and the government of the day, not to a political organisation or individual leader.
2. Anonymity and behind-the-scenes advice — Officials give free, frank, and confidential advice to ministers but do not claim public credit or blame for policy; the minister bears political responsibility.
3. Non-partisanship in conduct — No membership of political parties, no participation in partisan rallies or fundraising, no public criticism of government policy.
4. Continuity and stability — Neutrality ensures that administration continues uninterrupted when governments change, preserving institutional memory and public services.
5. Merit-based recruitment and security of tenure — Neutrality is meaningful only when appointment and promotion rest on merit and officials cannot be removed for refusing partisan demands.
6. Equal treatment of citizens — Public services are delivered without discrimination on the basis of party affiliation, caste, religion, or region.
7. Accountability to law — The official is answerable to the constitution, the Public Service Commission, and the courts, which protects him from illegal political pressure.

In short, political neutrality is the institutional guarantee that the permanent executive remains a neutral, professional instrument of the elected government, ensuring continuity of the state and equality before the law.

Can Such Neutrality Be Achieved in Nepal's Current Bureaucracy?

Arguments that it can be achieved (favourable factors):

• The Constitution of Nepal 2072 (Articles 285–287) provides for the Public Service Commission as an independent constitutional body for merit-based selection, and Article 240 lays down conditions of service for civil servants.
• The Civil Service Act, 2049 (1993) and its Rules prohibit civil servants from joining political parties or taking part in partisan politics, and provide for a permanent, tenured career service.
• The Good Governance (Management and Operation) Act, 2064 and the Local Government Operation Act, 2074 emphasise impartial, accountable service delivery.
• The National Civil Service Academy and mid-career training aim to build professional ethics and neutrality.
• The Federal Civil Service Act, 2075 seeks to create a unified, professional federal bureaucracy.
• Nepal has a long tradition of a permanent secretariat that has, at times, maintained continuity across changes of government.

Arguments that it is difficult in the current context (obstacles):

1. Politicisation of transfers and postings — Frequent, arbitrary transfers of secretaries, CDOs, and department heads after every change of government, often to reward loyalty or punish independence.
2. Party-based appointments in constitutional and other bodies — Despite PSC oversight, many appointments to commissions, corporations, and even some civil service positions are influenced by party quotas and patronage.
3. Weak enforcement of the legal ban on party membership — The prohibition exists on paper, but officials are widely known to maintain party links; enforcement is rare.
4. Frequent changes of government — Nepal has had many governments in a short period; each new coalition reshuffles the bureaucracy, undermining anonymity and continuity.
5. Unionism and factionalism within the civil service — Multiple civil servant unions aligned with political parties fragment professional solidarity.
6. Political interference in transfers, procurement, and local development budgets — Especially at the local level, elected representatives and party cadres influence decisions that should be neutral.
7. Weak accountability mechanisms — The Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority (CIAA) and other oversight bodies are overburdened and sometimes themselves politicised.
8. Impunity and lack of credible sanctions — Officials who violate neutrality seldom face consequences, so the incentive to remain neutral is weak.
9. Socio-political culture — A patronage-based political culture and the legacy of the Panchayat and post-1990 party era have normalised political favouritism in administration.

Conclusion:

Political neutrality is not an absolute condition but a continuum that depends on legal safeguards, institutional autonomy, political maturity, and professional ethics. Nepal's legal framework is largely adequate; the gap lies in implementation. Therefore, neutrality can be substantially achieved — but not fully in the current context — if the following measures are taken:

• Strict enforcement of the Civil Service Act's ban on party membership, with credible penalties.
• Transparent, criteria-based transfers and postings, with a minimum tenure for key posts.
• Strengthening the PSC, CIAA, and National Human Rights Commission as genuinely independent bodies.
• Merit-based promotion and a professional civil service cadre insulated from coalition politics.
• Political commitment from parties to respect the anonymity and impartiality of the permanent executive.

Thus, while complete neutrality remains an ideal, a high degree of it is achievable in Nepal through legal enforcement, institutional strengthening, and political will.

Introduction of Public Policy

Public policy is the deliberate course of action (or inaction) adopted by a government to address public problems and achieve societal goals. It consists of the decisions, laws, regulations, programmes and resource allocations made by authorised public institutions to guide and regulate public affairs.

Key features:

• Goal-oriented: It aims to solve problems or achieve specific objectives (e.g., poverty reduction, quality education).
• Authoritative: It is made by bodies legally empowered to do so (legislature, executive, judiciary).
• Binding: It carries the force of law or official sanction and applies to all or a section of society.
• Dynamic: It changes with time, resources, political priorities and public demands.
• Resource-based: It involves allocation of scarce resources — money, manpower, materials.

Public policy may take the form of substantive, regulatory, distributive, redistributive or constituent policies. In Nepal, examples include the Constitution of Nepal (2015), the Fifteenth Plan, the Local Government Operation Act (2017), and the Right to Education Act.

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Process of Public Policy Formulation in Nepal

The policy process in Nepal generally follows the stages model: agenda setting → policy formulation → adoption/decision → implementation → monitoring and evaluation. In the Nepali context, this works as follows:

1. Problem Identification and Agenda Setting

Public problems (e.g., unemployment, road accidents, load-shedding, flood damage) come to the government's attention through:

• Public demands, media reports, civil society and political parties
• Parliamentary committees, question hours and motions
• Directives from the Prime Minister's Office / Council of Ministers
• Periodic plans and international commitments (SDGs, donor pressure)

Only some problems reach the decision agenda; this depends on political priority, resources and pressure from stakeholders.

2. Policy Formulation

Once an issue is on the agenda, the concerned ministry or department prepares a draft policy. Steps involved:

• Preliminary study and data collection by the concerned ministry
• Consultation with stakeholders — other ministries, provinces and local governments, experts, civil society, private sector, and donor agencies
• Drafting the policy document (objectives, strategies, working policies, institutional arrangements)
• Discussion in inter-ministerial meetings and the National Planning Commission (NPC) for consistency with national plans
• Legal vetting by the Ministry of Law, Justice and Parliamentary Affairs

3. Approval and Adoption

The draft goes through the following chain:

• Ministry of Finance — checks fiscal implications
• NPC — checks consistency with national development goals
• Council of Ministers — gives final approval; if it is a bill, it is tabled in Parliament
• Parliament — debates, amends and passes it; the President authenticates it

In Nepal, policies are adopted as Acts, Ordinances, Regulations, Directives, Working Policies or Cabinet decisions.

4. Implementation

Implementation is done through:

• Federal ministries and departments
• Provincial ministries
• Local governments (753 local units) under the federal structure after 2015
• Public corporations, boards and committees
• Annual budgets and programmes issued through the Ministry of Finance and NPC

5. Monitoring and Evaluation

• Ministry-level monitoring and progress reports
• NPC's annual and periodic evaluation
• Parliamentary committees (e.g., Public Accounts Committee)
• Office of the Auditor General — financial audit
• CIAA — anti-corruption oversight
• Feedback from citizens, media and civil society

Based on evaluation, the policy is continued, modified or terminated.

Features of the Nepali Process

• Federal, provincial and local levels now share policy-making authority (Schedule 5, 6, 7 of the Constitution).
• NPC plays a central coordinating role.
• Donor influence is significant in many sectors.
• Political instability often delays or politicises policy decisions.
• Public consultation is increasing but still uneven.

Conclusion

Public policy formulation in Nepal is a multi-stage, multi-actor process shaped by constitutional provisions, political priorities, bureaucratic capacity and donor influence. Strengthening evidence-based drafting, timely consultation and effective monitoring is essential for good policy outcomes.

Obstacles to Implementing E-Governance in Nepal

1. Infrastructural constraints

• Unreliable electricity supply, especially in rural and remote districts, disrupts digital service delivery.
• Poor internet penetration and low bandwidth; fibre connectivity and 4G reach are concentrated in urban areas.
• Inadequate data centres and lack of a robust national broadband backbone.

2. Digital divide

• Wide gap between urban and rural populations, and between literate/tech-savvy and marginalised groups in access to devices and skills.
• Language barrier — most content is in English or formal Nepali, excluding many citizens.
• Gender and caste-based exclusion in digital access.

3. Financial constraints

• Heavy capital investment needed for hardware, software, connectivity and maintenance.
• Dependence on donor funding for many e-governance projects, leading to unsustainability after project periods.
• Low budget allocation and weak revenue generation in local levels.

4. Institutional and legal hurdles

• Absence of comprehensive, updated cyber laws and data protection legislation.
• Bureaucratic resistance — officials fear loss of discretionary power and are reluctant to change manual work culture.
• Lack of inter-agency coordination; ministries and departments run isolated systems (silo approach).
• Weak enforcement of the Electronic Transactions Act and inadequate digital signature use.

5. Human resource constraints

• Shortage of skilled IT manpower in government service; trained staff migrate to the private sector or abroad.
• Inadequate training and capacity-building programmes for existing civil servants.
• Low digital literacy among both service providers and citizens.

6. Socio-cultural and political factors

• Deep-rooted culture of in-person visits, paper-based transactions and "source" (personal contact) for getting work done.
• Political instability and frequent transfer of leadership causing discontinuity in ICT projects.
• Lack of awareness among citizens about available online services.

7. Technological and security issues

• Weak cybersecurity infrastructure; risk of hacking, data breach and identity theft.
• Absence of interoperability standards among government databases.
• Poor maintenance and rapid obsolescence of installed systems.

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How E-Governance Can Reduce Corruption

1. Transparency through online disclosure

• Publication of budgets, tenders, procurement notices and citizen charters on portals reduces information asymmetry.
• Citizens can track the status of applications (e.g., passport, land registration) online, removing the need to bribe for "speed".

2. Elimination of intermediaries

• Direct online submission of applications and online payment of fees/revenue cut the role of middlemen who demand commissions.
• Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) of allowances (e.g., social security) to bank accounts reduces leakage and ghost beneficiaries.

3. Automation and rule-based processing

• Automated systems apply fixed criteria and timelines, reducing the discretionary power of officials.
• E-tendering and e-bidding reduce collusion and favouritism in public procurement.

4. Accountability and audit trail

• Every digital transaction leaves a traceable record, making it difficult to hide irregular transactions.
• Integration with the Office of the Auditor General and CIAA enables data-based auditing and investigation.

5. Citizen empowerment and grievance redress

• Online grievance portals, helplines and social media allow citizens to report corruption anonymously.
• Right to Information requests can be filed and tracked electronically, strengthening watchdog role.

6. Reduction of discretion and delay

• Standardised online workflows reduce the "speed money" opportunity created by bureaucratic delay.
• Self-service kiosks and mobile apps reduce face-to-face interaction where bribes are usually solicited.

6. Data-driven monitoring

• Dashboards and MIS reports allow supervisors to detect anomalies (e.g., unusual approvals, repeated beneficiaries) in real time.

Conclusion E-governance attacks corruption at its roots — opacity, discretion and intermediation — by replacing them with transparency, automation and accountability. However, its effectiveness in Nepal depends on reliable infrastructure, strong cyber laws, skilled manpower and genuine political commitment. Without these, e-governance may remain symbolic rather than transformative.

Human Resource Management: Major Aspects and Measures to Attract and Retain Brilliant Talents in the Civil Service

1. Major Aspects of Human Resource Management

Human Resource Management (HRM) is the strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organisation's most valued asset — the people working there. In the context of the civil service, HRM covers the entire life-cycle of public employees. Its major aspects are:

(a) Human Resource Planning: Assessing the present and future manpower needs of the organisation in terms of number, quality and skill-mix, and matching them with organisational goals. It includes forecasting demand and supply of personnel, and preparing recruitment and succession plans.

(b) Recruitment and Selection: Attracting a pool of qualified candidates and choosing the most suitable ones through fair, transparent and merit-based processes. In Nepal, this is largely done through the Public Service Commission (Lok Sewa Aayog).

(c) Placement, Induction and Socialisation: Putting the right person in the right job and orienting new employees to organisational culture, rules, values and expectations.

(d) Training and Development: Imparting job-related skills (training) and broader competencies for future roles (development) through induction training, in-service training, refresher courses and capacity-building programmes.

(e) Performance Management: Setting performance standards, conducting performance appraisal, providing feedback, and linking appraisal results with promotion, rewards and career progression.

(f) Compensation and Benefits: Designing a fair and competitive pay structure, allowances, pension, gratuity, insurance and other benefits that motivate employees and ensure a decent standard of living.

(g) Career Development and Promotion: Providing a clear career path, promotion opportunities, transfer and deputation policies that keep employees growth-oriented.

(h) Employee Motivation, Welfare and Discipline: Creating a conducive working environment, ensuring welfare measures, grievance handling, and maintaining discipline through a proper reward-and-punishment system.

(i) Employee Relations and Participation: Maintaining harmonious relations among employees and between employees and management, encouraging participation in decision-making.

(j) Separation and Retirement Management: Managing resignation, retirement, dismissal and post-retirement benefits in a planned and humane manner.

(k) Strategic and Legal Framework: HRM in the civil service operates within the Civil Service Act, 2049 (1993), Civil Service Rules, 2050 (1993), and the Constitution of Nepal, which provide the legal and institutional framework.

In short, HRM encompasses acquisition, development, motivation, maintenance and separation of human resources — often described as the "5 M" functions of manpower management.

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2. Measures to Attract and Retain Brilliant Talents in the Civil Service

The civil service of Nepal faces a serious challenge of brain drain, low morale, and inability to compete with the private sector, NGOs/INGOs and foreign employment. To attract and retain brilliant talents, the following measures should be adopted:

A. Measures to Attract Talents

1. Competitive and Attractive Pay Structure: Revise salary scales periodically to make them comparable with the private sector and international organisations. Introduce performance-based increments and special allowances for scarce skills (IT, engineering, economics, law, accounting).

2. Transparent, Fair and Quick Recruitment: Make the Public Service Commission's recruitment process timely, technology-friendly (online application, e-administration), and free from favouritism so that meritorious candidates feel confident to apply.

3. Broadened Entry and Specialized Cadres: Create specialized cadres (e.g., economic service, IT service, foreign service) and allow lateral entry of experts at higher levels to bring in fresh talent and professionalism.

4. Better Working Environment and Facilities: Provide modern office infrastructure, ICT tools, research facilities, and a safe, respectful workplace, especially in remote districts.

5. Positive Public Image of the Civil Service: Project the civil service as a prestigious, nation-building career through media, career counselling in schools and universities, and recognition of honest and efficient officers.

6. Reservation with Merit Balance: Ensure affirmative action for marginalized groups while maintaining minimum merit standards, so that both inclusiveness and competence are achieved.

B. Measures to Retain Talents

1. Clear Career Path and Timely Promotion: Ensure predictable, merit-based and timely promotion, career advancement and opportunities for higher responsibility. Remove stagnation at lower levels.

2. Effective Performance Appraisal: Make appraisal objective, result-oriented and linked to rewards, training needs and promotion. Use 360-degree feedback and key performance indicators (KPIs).

3. Continuous Training and Capacity Development: Provide domestic and foreign training, higher education opportunities, exposure visits and research grants so that employees feel they are growing professionally.

4. Adequate Remuneration and Welfare: Ensure regular salary, pension, gratuity, medical insurance, housing and education facilities for children. Introduce special incentives for remote-area service.

5. Motivation and Recognition: Award letters of appreciation, cash prizes, national awards and public recognition for outstanding performance. Celebrate success stories of honest officers.

6. Grievance Handling and Job Security: Provide an effective grievance redressal mechanism, protect whistle-blowers, and ensure job security so that employees are not harassed or transferred arbitrarily.

7. Conducive Organizational Culture: Promote teamwork, transparency, accountability and participative leadership. Reduce political interference and undue pressure in day-to-day functioning.

8. Work-Life Balance: Introduce flexible working arrangements, leave facilities, and welfare schemes that help employees balance professional and personal life.

9. Career Counselling and Succession Planning: Identify high-potential employees early and groom them for leadership positions through mentoring and succession planning.

10. Use of ICT and E-Governance: Modernize service delivery through digital governance, which reduces drudgery and makes the job more interesting and efficient.

Conclusion

Human Resource Management in the civil service must shift from a traditional personnel administration approach to a strategic, performance-oriented and people-centred approach. Attracting and retaining brilliant talents requires a combination of competitive pay, merit-based recruitment and promotion, continuous training, welfare measures, and a positive organizational culture. Only then can the civil service become an attractive and rewarding career, capable of delivering good governance and quality public services to the people of Nepal.

(a) Basic characteristics of participatory planning

Participatory planning is a planning approach in which the people affected by a plan take part in preparing, deciding, implementing, monitoring and evaluating it. Its basic characteristics are:

1. People's participation at every stage — involvement from problem identification, plan formulation and resource allocation to implementation, monitoring and evaluation, not merely at the final stage.
2. Bottom-up approach — plans are prepared from the grassroots (ward, village, municipality) level and move upward, rather than being imposed from the top.
3. Inclusiveness and representation — participation of women, Dalits, Janajatis, Madhesis, persons with disabilities, poor and marginalised groups, not only elites and local leaders.
4. Local needs and priorities — plans reflect the real needs, problems and aspirations of local people.
5. Local resource mobilisation — use of local labour, skills, money, land and materials along with external resources (shramdan, community contribution).
6. Decentralised decision-making — authority and responsibility rest with local bodies and community organisations.
7. Transparency and accountability — open discussion, public hearing, public audit (samtik parikshan) and social accountability of leaders and officials.
8. Consensus and dialogue — decisions are taken through discussion, negotiation and agreement among stakeholders.
9. Ownership and sustainability — people feel the plan is their own, so they protect and maintain the assets created.
10. Empowerment and capacity building — participation increases awareness, confidence and skills of the people.
11. Flexibility and continuous process — plans can be revised as needs and situations change.

(b) Importance of participatory planning in development

1. Identification of real needs — local people know their problems best, so plans become need-based instead of supply-driven. Example: a hill village may prioritise a drinking water scheme while a Terai village prioritises an irrigation canal.
2. Better utilisation of local resources — local labour, materials and knowledge reduce cost. Example: in many rural road projects of Nepal, users' committees built roads at lower cost than contractors, with local shramdan.
3. Ownership and sustainability — people maintain what they build. Example: community forest user groups (CFUGs) in Nepal have regenerated forests and manage them sustainably because of local ownership.
4. Transparency and reduced corruption — public hearing and public audit make spending open. Example: social audit of users' committees under the Local Infrastructure Development Partnership Programme.
5. Empowerment of women and excluded groups — reservation and mandatory participation bring them into decision-making. Example: at least 33 per cent women participation in users' committees and ward-level planning.
6. Effective monitoring and evaluation — beneficiaries themselves monitor quality, so leakage and delay are reduced.
7. Reduction of conflict and dispute — decisions taken by consensus are more acceptable. Example: allocation of drinking water among wards through joint meetings.
8. Promotion of local democracy and good governance — it strengthens federalism, decentralisation and accountability of local governments.
9. Inclusive and equitable development — resources reach the poor and remote areas. Example: Karnali and remote hill areas get priority in local plans through participatory budgeting.
10. Capacity building of local institutions — tole/ward committees, cooperatives and user groups become stronger and more capable.
11. Better coordination among stakeholders — NGOs, local bodies, private sector and citizens work together.
12. Cost-sharing and self-reliance — people contribute cash, labour and land, reducing dependence on external grants.

Conclusion: Participatory planning makes development people-centred, inclusive, transparent and sustainable. In Nepal's federal context, it is the backbone of local-level planning (ward and municipal plans) and is essential for balanced and equitable development.