Active listening

Active listening is a way of listening in which the listener fully concentrates on the speaker, understands the message, responds appropriately and remembers what was said. It involves attention to both words and non-verbal cues, and it shows respect and interest. Techniques include maintaining eye contact, nodding, avoiding interruptions, asking clarifying questions, paraphrasing ("So you mean...") and taking notes.

Factors causing poor listening

1. Physical noise and distractions: background sound, mobile phones, uncomfortable surroundings.
2. Psychological factors: stress, tiredness, hunger, worry or illness reduce attention.
3. Lack of interest: the listener finds the topic boring or irrelevant.
4. Prejudice and bias: judging the speaker by appearance, accent, age or status, or having fixed opinions.
5. Thinking faster than speaking: the mind wanders because people think much faster than others speak.
6. Interrupting and preparing a reply: the listener plans an answer instead of listening.
7. Jumping to conclusions / pretending to listen: assuming the meaning before the speaker finishes.
8. Language and cultural barriers: unfamiliar vocabulary, accents, jargon or cultural differences.
9. Poor speaker delivery: unclear, too fast, too soft or disorganized speech.
10. Information overload: too much information at once.

Overcoming these factors makes communication more effective and reduces misunderstanding.

Presentation is the act of delivering information, ideas or proposals to an audience, usually orally and supported by visual aids such as slides, charts or models. Its purpose is to inform, persuade, train or motivate the audience within a limited time.

Guidelines for an effective presentation

1. Know your purpose and audience. Decide what you want the audience to know or do, and adapt the language, depth and examples to their background.
2. Plan and organize. Use a clear structure: an introduction (greeting, topic, outline), a body (main points in logical order) and a conclusion (summary and call to action).
3. Keep it simple and concise. Stay within the time limit and limit each slide to a few key points rather than paragraphs.
4. Use visual aids wisely. Use readable fonts, good contrast, relevant charts and images; avoid clutter and excessive animation.
5. Rehearse. Practise aloud, time yourself, and check the equipment and venue beforehand.
6. Use effective delivery. Speak clearly with a suitable pace and volume, maintain eye contact, use natural gestures and good posture, and do not just read from slides.
7. Engage the audience. Use questions, examples, stories or short activities, and watch their reactions.
8. Handle questions confidently. Listen carefully, answer honestly and politely, and admit when you do not know.
9. Dress and behave professionally, and control nervousness by deep breathing and preparation.
10. Conclude strongly. Summarize the main points and end with a memorable message or recommendation.

An essay is a short piece of non-fiction writing that discusses a topic from the writer's point of view in a connected and organized way. A well-written essay has three main components: introduction, body and conclusion, along with a suitable title.

1. Title A short, clear and appropriate heading that reflects the topic and attracts the reader.

2. Introduction (about 10-15% of the essay)

• Opens the topic and creates interest, often with a hook such as a fact, question, quotation or definition.
• Gives brief background or context.
• Ends with a thesis statement that states the main idea or argument of the essay.

3. Body (about 70-80%)

• Develops the thesis in several paragraphs, each with one main idea.
• Each paragraph has a topic sentence, supporting sentences (reasons, facts, examples, statistics, explanations) and a closing or transition sentence.
• Paragraphs are arranged logically (order of importance, time, cause and effect or comparison) and linked with transitions such as "moreover", "however" and "as a result".
• Counter-arguments may be included and answered in an argumentative essay.

4. Conclusion (about 10-15%)

• Restates the thesis in new words and summarizes the main points.
• Gives a final thought, recommendation, prediction or call to action.
• Introduces no new arguments.

Qualities of a good essay: unity, coherence, clarity, correct grammar and a suitable style. A good essay follows the pattern: tell the reader what you will say (introduction), say it (body), and tell them what you said (conclusion).

Review of the Film Kabaddi

Introduction

Kabaddi (2014), directed by Ram Babu Gurung, is one of the most popular Nepali comedy-drama films. I recently watched it again and found it a lively, humorous and warm-hearted film.

Plot

The story follows a group of friends and their families involved in a series of comic situations in Kathmandu, where romance, misunderstandings and rivalry meet. Despite the many jokes, the film shows friendship, family bonds and everyday struggles.

Characters and acting

The cast delivers natural, energetic performances, and the comic timing of the characters is one of the film's biggest strengths.

Direction, music and technical aspects

The direction is simple and engaging; the songs are catchy and the editing keeps the pace smooth. The film uses real locations that give the story authenticity.

Theme and message

Behind the humour lies a message about unity, loyalty and the value of relationships in Nepali society.

Weaknesses

A few scenes depend on exaggerated comedy and the story is predictable at times.

Conclusion

Overall, the film is enjoyable, fun and culturally rooted. It is a good choice for family viewing, and I recommend it to anyone who wants light-hearted entertainment with a meaningful touch.

Presentation

A presentation is a structured, usually oral, communication in which a speaker delivers information, ideas or proposals to an audience, often with the support of visual aids such as slides, charts or demonstrations. Its aim may be to inform, persuade, train or sell.

Strategies for effective presentation

1. Analyse the audience and purpose. Know who will listen, their level of knowledge and what you want them to understand or do.
2. Plan and structure the content. Include an introduction (greeting, topic, outline), body (key points in logical order) and conclusion (summary, call to action).
3. Prepare effective visual aids. Use simple slides with few words, large readable fonts, contrasting colours and relevant graphics; avoid overcrowding.
4. Rehearse. Practise several times, time the talk and test the equipment beforehand.
5. Start and end powerfully. Open with a question, story or statistic and close with a clear take-away message.
6. Deliver confidently. Use a clear voice and moderate pace, maintain eye contact, use gestures and posture, and do not read from slides.
7. Engage the audience. Ask questions, give examples and invite participation.
8. Manage time and nervousness. Keep to the schedule and use deep breathing and preparation.
9. Handle questions politely and answer honestly.
10. Seek feedback for improvement.

An essay is a short, organized piece of writing on a single topic. Its three principal components are the introduction, body and conclusion.

1. Introduction

• It is the opening paragraph and creates the reader's first impression.
• It attracts attention with a hook (a fact, question, quotation, anecdote or definition), gives necessary background, and ends with a thesis statement presenting the central idea or purpose of the essay.
• It should be brief, clear and interesting.

2. Body

• It is the main part, containing the discussion, explanation and evidence.
• It consists of several paragraphs, each dealing with one main idea, beginning with a topic sentence, followed by supporting details (reasons, facts, examples, statistics) and a concluding or linking sentence.
• Paragraphs are arranged logically (chronologically, by importance, cause-effect or comparison) and connected with transitions such as "moreover", "in addition", "however".
• It keeps unity (everything relates to the thesis) and coherence (ideas flow smoothly).

3. Conclusion

• It is the final paragraph, giving a sense of completion.
• It restates the thesis in different words, summarizes the main points, and ends with a final thought, recommendation or call to action.
• It must not introduce new ideas.

A balanced essay devotes roughly 10-15% to the introduction, 70-80% to the body and 10-15% to the conclusion.

Writing process

The writing process is the series of stages a writer follows to turn an idea into a finished, polished document. It is recursive, so a writer may return to earlier stages.

Steps

1. Prewriting / planning. Choose the topic, identify the purpose and audience, brainstorm, research, and collect ideas.
2. Organizing (outlining). Arrange the ideas in a logical order and prepare an outline of the main and supporting points.
3. Drafting. Write the first version following the outline, concentrating on getting ideas down rather than perfection.
4. Revising. Review the draft for content, organization, clarity, unity and coherence; add, delete or rearrange material.
5. Editing. Correct grammar, spelling, punctuation, word choice and style.
6. Proofreading. Check the final copy carefully for small mistakes and formatting errors.
7. Publishing / submitting. Present or share the final document with the audience.

Ethics for students means the moral principles and standards of conduct that guide a student's behaviour in academic and social life. It separates right from wrong in studying, writing, examinations and relations with teachers and classmates.

Main points:

• Academic honesty: doing one's own work and not cheating in examinations, copying assignments or submitting purchased work.
• Avoiding plagiarism: acknowledging the sources of ideas, data and words taken from others, and not presenting them as one's own.
• Respect: being courteous to teachers, staff and fellow students, and respecting different opinions, cultures and genders.
• Discipline and responsibility: being punctual and regular, completing tasks on time, and taking care of institutional property.
• Integrity in research and technology: not fabricating data, not misusing the internet, and not breaching the privacy of others or hacking.
• Teamwork: sharing work fairly in group projects.

Following ethics builds character, earns trust and gives value to the degree earned. It also prepares students to become honest professionals later.

Reading techniques are strategies adopted to read efficiently according to the purpose. Two important rapid reading techniques are skimming and scanning.

Skimming

Skimming means reading quickly to get the general idea or gist of a text without reading every word.

• Purpose: to know what a text is about, decide whether it is worth reading in detail, or preview/revise material.
• How to skim: read the title, headings and subheadings; read the first and last paragraphs; read the first (topic) sentence of each paragraph; notice bold words, captions, charts and keywords; let the eyes move quickly over the rest.
• Examples: previewing a chapter, going through a newspaper, looking over a report before a meeting.
• Speed: very fast, often 700 words per minute or more; comprehension is partial.

Scanning

Scanning means searching a text quickly to locate specific information such as a name, date, number or fact.

• Purpose: to find particular details without reading the whole text.
• How to scan: know exactly what you are looking for; guess the form of the answer (a capital letter, a number); move the eyes quickly down the page, often in a zigzag, until the keyword appears; then read that part carefully.
• Examples: finding a phone number in a directory, a word in a dictionary, a train time in a timetable, or a figure in a table.

Difference

Both techniques save time and improve reading efficiency, and are especially useful for students handling large amounts of material.

Ethics are moral principles of right and wrong, and technical communication is the clear conveying of technical information (reports, manuals, proposals, emails, presentations) to a specific audience. The two are closely related because technical documents influence decisions, safety, money and public welfare, so they must be prepared with honesty and responsibility.

How ethics relates to technical communication

1. Honesty and accuracy. Data, results and claims must be truthful and not falsified, fabricated or exaggerated. Misleading facts can cause serious harm.
2. Avoiding plagiarism. Sources, ideas and work of others must be acknowledged through citations and permission; respecting copyright and intellectual property is an ethical duty.
3. Confidentiality and privacy. Writers must protect the confidential information of employers, clients and individuals, and not disclose it without authority.
4. Clarity and completeness. Hiding important risks, limitations or errors, or using confusing language to mislead, is unethical. Safety warnings in manuals must be clear.
5. Respect for the audience. Use unbiased, non-discriminatory language, and present information fairly, considering the reader's needs and culture.
6. Responsibility to society and the environment. Documents should not conceal public hazards; engineers and IT professionals have a duty to report harmful practices.
7. Fair credit. Contributions of team members must be properly credited.
8. Following codes and laws. Professional codes of ethics (e.g. IEEE, ACM) and legal standards guide communicators.

Thus ethical technical communication builds trust, protects users and keeps professionals and organizations credible.

Reading techniques are the strategies a reader chooses according to the purpose of reading and the type of text. The main ones are skimming, scanning, intensive reading (close study of a text for full understanding) and extensive reading (reading longer texts for pleasure or general knowledge). Choosing the right technique saves time and improves comprehension.

Skimming means reading quickly to get the general idea or gist of a text.

• The reader looks at the title, headings, first and last paragraphs, topic sentences and keywords, and ignores details.
• It is used to preview a book or report, to decide whether it is worth reading, or to revise quickly.
• The reading speed is very high, and the aim is overall understanding, not exact facts.

Scanning means searching a text quickly for a specific piece of information such as a name, date, number or term.

• The eyes move over the page until the required item is found, and the rest is ignored.
• It is used with timetables, indexes, dictionaries, directories and reference books.

Difference: skimming answers "What is this text about?" and scanning answers "Where is this particular fact?" Both are selective, fast and purpose-driven, and they are essential for students who must read much material in limited time.

Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with moral principles, that is, the standards of right and wrong, good and bad, which govern the behaviour of individuals and groups. In professional life, it means a set of values such as honesty, integrity, fairness, responsibility and respect for others.

Relation between ethics and technical communication

Technical communication affects decisions about safety, money and the environment, so a technical communicator has an ethical duty to those who read the message. The relationship appears in these ways:

1. Honesty and accuracy: data, results and claims must be reported truthfully. Falsifying or hiding facts, or exaggerating them, can cause harm and loss of trust.
2. Avoiding plagiarism and respecting copyright: the work of others must be cited, and permission must be taken where needed.
3. Safety and public welfare: risks, warnings and limitations of a product must be stated clearly in manuals and labels.
4. Confidentiality and privacy: company secrets and personal data of clients must not be disclosed or misused.
5. Clarity and fairness to the audience: language should not be misleading or ambiguous, and the information should not be written to deceive; visuals and graphs should not distort facts.
6. Non-discrimination and cultural sensitivity: language should be free of bias based on gender, race, religion or disability.
7. Legal and professional codes: communicators follow organisational and professional codes of conduct, and conflicts of interest are disclosed.

Ethical technical communication builds credibility and trust, protects users and the writer's organisation from legal problems, and so makes the communication effective as well as responsible.

i. The two main parts of Einstein's theory of relativity

The theory has two parts: special relativity (1905), which deals with objects moving at constant speed, especially speeds close to the speed of light, and general relativity (1915), which extends the theory to accelerated motion and gravity.

ii. Significance of $E = mc^2$

The equation shows that mass and energy are equivalent: a small amount of mass can be converted into a very large amount of energy, because the conversion factor is the square of the speed of light ($c^2$). It explains how the Sun produces energy, and it is the basis of nuclear energy.

iii. Gravity in general relativity

General relativity describes gravity not as a force but as the curvature of space-time caused by mass and energy. Massive bodies bend space-time, and other objects (and light) follow the curved paths, which we observe as gravitational attraction.

iv. A real-life application

The Global Positioning System (GPS). Satellite clocks run at a different rate from clocks on Earth because of their speed (special relativity) and the weaker gravity (general relativity). The system must correct for this effect; otherwise, position errors would grow by several kilometres each day.

v. The major remaining challenge

The main challenge is to unify general relativity (which governs gravity and the large-scale universe) with quantum mechanics (which governs the very small), in a single theory of quantum gravity. The two theories do not agree in extreme conditions such as black holes and the beginning of the universe.

The role of the modern engineer has changed greatly. Engineers are no longer valued only for their technical knowledge; they must also design with sustainability in mind, protecting the environment and using resources wisely. Good communication skills are needed to explain complex ideas to colleagues, clients and the public, and leadership and teamwork skills are needed to work in multi-disciplinary teams on large projects. Engineers also carry an ethical responsibility for the safety and welfare of society, so they must act honestly and consider the social effects of their work. Today's engineers must therefore combine technical competence with social, communicative and ethical awareness.

i. my way. "I am sorry I am late. I am after I lost my way" - to lose one's way means to become lost.

ii. your head. "In an emergency don't lose your head" - to lose one's head means to panic or fail to stay calm.

iii. heart. "It's not as serious as you think, try not to lose heart" - to lose heart means to become discouraged.

iv. returned. "It is time they returned" - after it is time the past subjunctive (past form) is used for the present or future time.

v. landed. "It's time the plane landed" - the same rule: it's time + subject + past tense.

Technical writing is writing that communicates technical, scientific or specialised information (such as engineering, computing and medicine) clearly and accurately to a specific audience so that they can understand it or use it to carry out a task. Examples are user manuals, reports, proposals, research papers, instructions, specifications and technical emails.

Characteristics of technical writing

1. Clarity: the meaning is clear and cannot be misunderstood; simple words and short sentences are used.
2. Accuracy: facts, figures, units and terms are correct and verified; there is no guessing.
3. Conciseness: the information is brief and direct without unnecessary details or repetition.
4. Objectivity: the writing is impersonal and based on facts and evidence rather than on feelings or opinions.
5. Audience-oriented: the vocabulary, depth and style suit the reader's knowledge and need.
6. Purpose-oriented: it has a definite purpose, such as informing, instructing or persuading.
7. Organisation and formal structure: it follows a logical format with headings, numbering, and sections such as introduction, body and conclusion.
8. Use of visuals: tables, graphs, charts, diagrams and symbols are used to support the text.
9. Formal style and tone: formal language, standard grammar, and no slang or emotional words.
10. Completeness and consistency: all the needed information is provided, and the terms, units and format are consistent.
11. Documentation: sources are cited and references are given.

These features make technical documents reliable, easy to read and easy to use.

A Critical Review of Palpasa Cafe by Narayan Wagle

Palpasa Cafe (2005) is a novel by Narayan Wagle, a journalist, and it won the Madan Puraskar. It is set during the Maoist conflict in Nepal and is one of the best-known Nepali novels of recent times.

Summary. The narrator, Drishya, is a young painter from Kathmandu. He meets Palpasa, a Nepali-American woman who runs a cafe, and the two fall in love. Drishya then travels to the villages, where he sees at first hand how war and fear affect ordinary people. His friend Siddhartha leaves a comfortable life to take part in the conflict. The story deals with love, loss and the search for peace.

Strengths

• Theme: it describes the human cost of the civil war honestly, through the eyes of an artist, without simple propaganda for either side.
• Style: the language is simple, poetic and direct, and the short chapters make the book easy to read.
• Characters: Drishya's confusion and the contrast between the city and the village are well drawn.
• Realism: the journalist's eye gives an authentic picture of village life and displacement.

Weaknesses

• The plot is slow at times, and Palpasa's own story is thin compared with Drishya's.
• Some episodes are told in a reporting style, which reduces the emotional effect.
• The ending is sad and a little abrupt.

Conclusion. Despite these faults, Palpasa Cafe is a moving and thoughtful novel. It keeps the memory of a painful period alive and shows the need for peace, and I recommend it to anyone who wants to understand modern Nepal.

(i) on – we use "on" with a specific date: on the twenty second of August.

(ii) indulge in – the correct collocation is "indulge in" (drugs).

(iii) important day – a "red letter day" is a memorable, special or important day.

(iv) legible – "legible" means clear enough to be read; "illegible" is the opposite, and "eligible" means qualified.

(v) joy – "ecstasy" means overwhelming happiness or joy.

(vi) to be repaired – the watch receives the action, so a passive infinitive is needed: "needed to be repaired" (or "needed repairing").

(vii) shall – the sentence states a real future condition (if she pays attention, I shall give her a gift).

(viii) in case – "in case I get it" means as a precaution, which fits arranging insurance beforehand.

(i) One can't succeed unless one tries hard. (AmE) → You can't succeed unless you try hard. (American English prefers "you" or "he/she" to the formal generic "one".)

(ii) Management has postponed the meeting. (informal) → Management has put off the meeting. (phrasal verb "put off" is informal.)

(iii) It is going to be sunny today. (tentative) → It might be sunny today. / It looks as if it may be sunny today.

(iv) There is not any chocolate left for you. (tactful) → I'm afraid all the chocolate has been finished, but we can get some more soon.

(v) Feeling unwell, he hasn't taken his lunch. (common core) → He felt unwell, so he did not have his lunch. / He is unwell and has not had his lunch.

(vi) Adjective from "Science" → scientific.

(vii) She was an intelligent, so she got marks in exam. (simple) → Being intelligent, she got good marks in the exam.

Ethics are the moral principles of right and wrong that guide how people behave. At the workplace, ethics means honesty, fairness, respect and responsibility in all dealings with colleagues, customers, employers and society.

Significance of ethics at the workplace

1. Builds trust. Honest and transparent behaviour creates trust between employees, management and clients, which is the basis of long-term relationships.
2. Improves reputation. An ethical organization earns goodwill, attracts customers, investors and talented workers, and avoids scandals.
3. Promotes a positive work culture. Respect, fairness and non-discrimination reduce conflict, harassment and stress, and raise morale and teamwork.
4. Increases productivity and commitment. Employees who are treated fairly are more loyal and motivated, so turnover falls and efficiency rises.
5. Ensures legal compliance. Ethical practice helps organizations obey laws and avoid fines, lawsuits and penalties.
6. Supports better decision-making. Clear ethical standards guide employees in dilemmas such as conflict of interest, bribery or misuse of data.
7. Protects confidentiality and property. Employees safeguard confidential information, intellectual property and company resources.
8. Social responsibility. Ethical firms consider the effect of their work on the environment and community.

In short, ethics is not a burden but a foundation for sustainable success, credibility and a healthy working environment.

Application letter

Sunil Sharma Birgunj-5, Parsa Mobile: 9800000000 Email: sunil.sharma@example.com

12 March 2025

The Principal ABC College Nepalgunj, Banke

Subject: Application for the post of Software Engineer

Dear Sir/Madam,

With reference to your vacancy announcement published in The Kathmandu Post on 8 March 2025, I wish to apply for the post of Software Engineer at ABC College. I hold a Bachelor's degree in Computer Engineering and have two years of experience in developing and maintaining web and database applications.

During my studies and work, I have developed skills in Java, Python, JavaScript, SQL and web frameworks, and I have worked in teams using Git and agile methods. I am confident that I can design, develop and maintain the college's academic and administrative software systems efficiently. I am hardworking, punctual and eager to learn, and I would welcome the opportunity to contribute to the growth of your institution.

My Curriculum Vitae and copies of my certificates are enclosed. I would be pleased to attend an interview at your convenience.

Thank you for your consideration.

Yours faithfully, Sunil Sharma

Enclosures: CV, academic certificates, citizenship copy, experience letter

CURRICULUM VITAE

Name: Sunil Sharma Address: Birgunj-5, Parsa Phone/Email: 9800000000 / sunil.sharma@example.com Date of birth: 12 June 1999 Nationality: Nepali

Objective: To work as a Software Engineer where I can apply my technical skills for the growth of the organization and my own career.

Academic qualifications

Work experience: Software Developer, Himal Tech Solutions, Kathmandu (2022-2024): developed web applications and REST APIs, managed MySQL databases and fixed bugs.

Technical skills: Java, Python, JavaScript, HTML/CSS, SQL, React, Spring Boot, Git, Linux, software testing.

Projects: College management system; online library system.

Training: Full-stack web development (3 months).

Languages: Nepali, English, Hindi.

Interests: Programming, reading, teamwork and volunteering.

References: Available on request.

Signature: Sunil Sharma

Use of Artificial Intelligence in Education

Introduction

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the ability of machines to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning and understanding language. In recent years AI has entered almost every field, and education is among those most affected. From smart tutoring systems to chatbots, AI is changing how students learn and how teachers teach.

Personalized learning

Every student learns at a different pace. AI-based platforms analyse a learner's performance and adapt the content, difficulty and speed to individual needs. Weak areas are identified early and extra practice is suggested, so students gain confidence and achieve better results.

Intelligent tutoring and virtual assistants

AI tutors and chatbots can answer questions at any time, explain difficult concepts in simple language and give instant feedback. This is especially valuable for students who cannot afford private tuition or live in remote areas such as many parts of Nepal.

Support for teachers and administration

AI can automate routine work such as marking objective tests, taking attendance, preparing timetables and managing records. This saves teachers' time, which they can use for creative teaching and personal guidance. AI also helps in detecting plagiarism and in predicting students at risk of dropping out.

Access and inclusion

Speech recognition, translation and text-to-speech tools help students with disabilities and those who speak different languages. Online AI-powered courses make quality education available to learners anywhere.

Challenges

Despite these benefits, there are concerns. Over-dependence on AI may weaken critical thinking and encourage cheating. Student data raises privacy and security issues. AI systems can be biased or give incorrect information. The cost of technology, poor internet connectivity and lack of digital skills limit its use in developing countries. Teachers may also fear being replaced, although AI cannot replace human empathy and mentoring.

Conclusion

AI is a powerful tool that can make education more personalized, efficient and accessible. However, it should support and not replace teachers, and must be used ethically with proper rules, training and data protection. If used wisely, AI can help build a better-educated and more skilled generation.

Patent

A patent is a legal right granted by the government to an inventor for a new, useful and non-obvious invention. It gives the inventor the exclusive right to make, use, sell or license the invention for a limited period (usually 20 years) in exchange for public disclosure of how it works. It protects ideas such as machines, processes and technical products. Others must obtain permission or pay royalties to use it.

Copyright

Copyright is the legal right of the creator of an original work of authorship, such as books, articles, music, films, paintings and computer software. It arises automatically when the work is created and fixed in a tangible form. It gives the owner the exclusive right to copy, distribute, adapt and perform the work, and usually lasts for the author's life plus a number of years (e.g. 50-70). It protects the expression of an idea, not the idea itself.

Difference

Both protect intellectual property, encourage creativity and prevent unauthorized use.

Importance of syntactical skills

Syntax is the way words are arranged to form correct phrases, clauses and sentences. Syntactical skill is the ability to build grammatically correct, clear and varied sentences.

Importance

1. Clarity: correct word order and sentence structure make the meaning unambiguous.
2. Effective communication: well-formed sentences convey ideas accurately and avoid misunderstanding, which is vital in technical documents, emails and reports.
3. Professional impression: error-free writing shows competence and credibility.
4. Variety and style: knowing simple, compound and complex structures lets a writer vary rhythm and emphasis and avoid monotony.
5. Coherence and conciseness: good syntax helps link ideas logically and express them economically.
6. Academic success: essays, answers and presentations are judged partly on grammatical accuracy.
7. Better reading and comprehension: understanding sentence structure helps to interpret complex texts.

Thus syntactical skills are essential for accurate, persuasive and professional communication.

Relation between listening and taking notes

Listening and note-taking are closely connected academic skills; good notes depend on good listening, and note-taking in turn improves listening.

• Listening is the input, notes are the record. A student must first understand and select the main ideas before writing them down.
• Note-taking keeps attention focused. Writing key points prevents the mind from wandering and encourages active listening.
• Selective listening. The listener identifies main points, examples and signal words ("firstly", "in conclusion") and records only the important ones, using abbreviations and symbols.
• Memory aid. Notes preserve information that would otherwise be forgotten, and are useful for revision and assignments.
• Understanding and organization. Reviewing and rewriting notes strengthens comprehension.
• Balance is needed. If one writes too much, one misses what is being said; if one writes too little, important facts are lost.

Therefore, effective note-taking requires active listening, and listening becomes more productive when supported by good notes.

Language

Language is a systematic means of communicating ideas, feelings and information through a structured system of sounds, words and symbols (spoken, written or signed) shared by a community. It is a human, rule-governed system, and is the main vehicle of thought, culture and social interaction.

Characteristics of the English language

1. Global language. English is spoken as a first, second or foreign language worldwide and is the main language of science, technology, business, aviation and the internet.
2. Rich vocabulary. It has borrowed words from Latin, French, Greek, German and many other languages, and has a very large and still growing word stock.
3. Simple grammatical inflection. Compared with many languages, nouns have no grammatical gender and verbs have few endings, so English relies mainly on word order (subject-verb-object).
4. Irregular spelling and pronunciation. Spelling does not always match sound (e.g. "though", "through", "cough"), and there are many irregular verbs and plurals.
5. Flexible and adaptable. New words are created by compounding, affixation, blending and borrowing (e.g. "selfie", "email"); nouns can become verbs and vice versa.
6. Varieties. There are many dialects and standards such as British, American, Indian and Nepali English, with differences in spelling, vocabulary and accent.
7. Idioms and phrasal verbs. English uses many figurative expressions and phrasal verbs ("give up", "break down").
8. Uses auxiliary verbs and word order for meaning, such as questions and negatives formed with "do".
9. Written and spoken forms differ in style, from formal to informal registers.

Because of these features, English is both flexible and widely useful, though it can be difficult to master.

Sentence

A sentence is a group of words arranged in a grammatical order that expresses a complete thought. It must have a subject and a predicate (finite verb), begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark.

Structural division of sentences

On the basis of structure (number and type of clauses), sentences are of four types.

1. Simple sentence. Contains one independent clause (one subject and one finite verb).

   • The students are writing the exam.
   • Ram and Sita went to the market.

2. Compound sentence. Contains two or more independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, so, yet) or a semicolon.

   • He studied hard, but he failed the test.
   • I wanted to go, so I booked a ticket.

3. Complex sentence. Contains one independent (main) clause and at least one dependent (subordinate) clause, joined by subordinators (because, although, if, when, who, that).

   • Although it was raining, we went out.
   • The man who called you is my uncle.

4. Compound-complex sentence. Contains two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

   • I called him because I was worried, but he did not answer.
   • When the bell rang, the students left, and the teacher locked the room.

Knowledge of these structures helps writers vary their sentences for clarity and style.

Roles of sentence structure in effective writing

Sentence structure is the way words, phrases and clauses are arranged to form simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences. It plays an important role in writing.

1. Clarity and correctness. Proper order of subject, verb and object avoids ambiguity and grammatical errors (e.g. avoiding fragments, run-ons and misplaced modifiers).
2. Variety and rhythm. Mixing short and long sentences, and simple with complex ones, prevents monotony and holds the reader's interest.
3. Emphasis. Short simple sentences stress key points; placing important ideas at the beginning or end of a sentence, or using the active voice, gives them prominence.
4. Showing relationships between ideas. Compound sentences show equal ideas (addition, contrast, choice), while complex sentences show cause, condition, time and concession, making the logic clear.
5. Coherence and flow. Proper connectors and parallel structure help ideas move smoothly from one sentence to the next.
6. Conciseness. Well-built sentences express ideas in fewer words, avoiding wordiness and redundancy.
7. Suitable tone and purpose. Technical and academic writing needs precise, straightforward structures, whereas narrative writing can use more varied ones.
8. Reader's understanding. Overly long or tangled sentences confuse readers; balanced structure improves readability.

Hence, command of sentence structure makes writing clear, correct, interesting and persuasive.

(i) Help the needy people. (highly polite) → Would you be so kind as to help the needy people? / Would you kindly help the needy people?

(ii) They were poor and often suffered great hardships. (simple) → Being poor, they often suffered great hardships.

(iii) In spite of his popularity, he can't be called a great writer. (compound) → He is popular, but he can't be called a great writer.

(iv) He hoped to win the prize. (complex) → He hoped that he would win the prize.

(v) She is singing a sweet song. (passive) → A sweet song is being sung by her.

(vi) She has got a nice present. (AmE) → She has gotten a nice present.

(vii) For what post was he selected? (informal) → What post was he selected for?

(viii) Mr. Thapa accept the marriage proposal. (tentative) → Mr. Thapa might accept the marriage proposal. / Perhaps Mr. Thapa will accept the marriage proposal.

(i) speaking – "as important as speaking" (gerund after the preposition).

(ii) changes – a universal truth in the simple present with the singular subject "everything".

(iii) comes – in a time clause with "when", the simple present is used for the future.

(iv) is going to rain – a prediction based on present evidence (black clouds).

(v) will visit – "perhaps" with a future possibility: "Perhaps we will visit Bangalore next week."

(vi) has been – "She has been unconscious since morning" (present perfect with "since").

(vii) have watched – "because I have watched it twice" (present perfect for experience up to now).

Review of the Film Seto Bagh

Introduction

Seto Bagh is a Nepali film set in the Himalayan region that blends adventure, human struggle and nature. I recently watched it and found it both entertaining and thoughtful.

Story

The film follows a man who goes in search of a legendary white tiger and, in the process, confronts fear, greed and his own conscience. The journey through forests and mountains becomes a test of courage and values.

Strengths

• Direction and acting: The performances are natural and convincing, and the direction keeps the story tight.
• Cinematography: The landscapes of Nepal are captured beautifully.
• Music and background score heighten tension and emotion at the right moments.
• Theme: The film explores the relationship between humans and nature, ambition and sacrifice.

Weakness

A few scenes in the middle move slowly, but this does not spoil the overall experience.

Why I recommend it

1. It shows the beauty and culture of Nepal and makes viewers proud of their country.
2. It carries a strong message about respecting wildlife and nature.
3. It is a good example of quality Nepali filmmaking, and watching it encourages local cinema.
4. It is suitable for all ages and inspires thought and discussion.

Conclusion

With its strong story, fine visuals and meaningful message, the film is well worth watching. I recommend it to everyone who enjoys meaningful cinema.

Developing a Reading Culture

Introduction

Reading is the foundation of knowledge, imagination and critical thinking. Yet in the age of smartphones and social media, many students and citizens, including in Nepal, read less and less. I strongly believe that a reading culture can and must be developed through the joint efforts of homes, schools and the state.

Argument 1: Start at home and in school

Children who see parents reading and are given storybooks early grow up loving books. Schools should have well-stocked libraries, daily reading periods, book clubs and reading competitions, and teachers should encourage reading beyond the textbook rather than only rote learning for exams.

Argument 2: Make books available and affordable

Community libraries, mobile libraries and low-cost editions in Nepali and English should reach villages as well as cities. Digital libraries and e-books can extend access at little cost.

Argument 3: Use technology positively

Although screens distract us, they can also promote reading through e-readers, audiobooks and online reading groups. Social media can be used to share book reviews and reading challenges.

Argument 4: Reward and recognize reading

Book fairs, author talks, literary festivals, awards and reading campaigns make reading prestigious and enjoyable.

Counter-argument

Some say that people no longer have time to read, and that videos provide information faster. However, reading builds concentration, vocabulary and deep understanding that short videos cannot, and even fifteen minutes a day can form a lasting habit.

Conclusion

A reading culture does not grow by itself; it must be nurtured. If families, schools, libraries and government work together, and individuals set aside time to read daily, we can create a society of thoughtful and informed readers.

Strategies for effective speaking

Effective speaking is the ability to convey a message clearly, confidently and persuasively to an audience. The major strategies are:

1. Know the purpose and audience. Decide whether you want to inform, persuade or entertain, and adapt language, tone and examples to the listeners.
2. Prepare and organize. Gather content, arrange it logically with an opening, body and closing, and prepare notes or keywords rather than a full script.
3. Practise and rehearse. Practise aloud, record yourself, and time the speech to reduce errors and nervousness.
4. Begin strongly and end memorably. Start with a question, story or fact to catch attention; end with a summary or call to action.
5. Use clear and simple language. Avoid jargon and long sentences; use correct pronunciation and appropriate vocabulary.
6. Control voice. Vary pitch, volume, pace and pauses; speak neither too fast nor too softly, and stress key words.
7. Use body language. Maintain eye contact, stand confidently, use natural gestures and facial expressions, and avoid distracting habits.
8. Engage the audience. Ask questions, use examples, humour and visuals, and read the audience's reactions.
9. Manage nervousness. Breathe deeply, think positively, and arrive early and be familiar with the venue.
10. Be honest, polite and respectful, and handle questions calmly.
11. Use visual aids sensibly to support, not replace, the speaker.
12. Take feedback to improve in the future.

Following these strategies helps a speaker to earn the audience's attention and trust.

Paragraph 1: Introduction / automation

• Topic sentence: Artificial intelligence is transforming the IT industry by automating routine tasks.
• Conclusion: Automation saves time and cost and lets professionals concentrate on creative and complex work.

Paragraph 2: Decision-making

• Topic sentence: AI systems analyse huge amounts of data to support faster and more accurate decision-making.
• Conclusion: Data-driven decisions improve efficiency, prediction and customer service in IT companies.

Paragraph 3: Challenges

• Topic sentence: Despite its benefits, AI also creates serious challenges for the industry.
• Conclusion: Issues such as job loss, bias, privacy and the need for new skills must be addressed for AI to be used responsibly.

Summary

Artificial intelligence is changing the IT industry by automating repetitive work and supporting quick, accurate, data-based decisions, which raises productivity and reduces costs. However, it also brings challenges such as unemployment, bias, privacy risks and a demand for new skills, so organizations must use AI responsibly and train their workers.

Ethics are moral principles that distinguish right from wrong. They shape character and behaviour, and contribute to growth and success in the following ways.

1. Integrity. Ethics teaches people to follow principles consistently, even when no one is watching. Such consistency between words and actions builds a strong, respected character and earns trust.
2. Honesty. Ethical values encourage truthfulness in speech, reporting and dealings. Honest people avoid cheating, plagiarism and corruption, and gain credibility with colleagues, clients and employers.
3. Accountability. Ethics develops responsibility for one's decisions and actions. An accountable person accepts mistakes, corrects them and does not blame others, which leads to learning and improvement.
4. Growth and success. Trust, reputation and good relationships bring long-term opportunities, loyal customers and teamwork. Organizations with ethical cultures avoid legal troubles and scandals, and are more sustainable.

Thus ethics is the foundation of personal and professional development, since success built on integrity, honesty and accountability lasts longer.

Role of IT for Developing Smart City

Introduction

A smart city is an urban area that uses information technology (IT), sensors and data to improve the quality of life, efficiency of services and sustainability of the city. With rapid urbanization in countries like Nepal, IT has become the backbone of planning and managing modern cities.

Major roles of IT

1. Smart transportation. GPS, traffic sensors and intelligent signals reduce congestion; online ticketing, ride-sharing and public transport tracking save time and fuel.
2. Smart energy and utilities. Smart meters and grids monitor electricity and water use, detect leakage and reduce wastage; renewable energy can be managed efficiently.
3. Waste and environment management. Sensors track garbage bins and air and water quality, enabling timely collection and pollution control.
4. E-governance and digital services. Citizens can pay taxes, obtain documents and give feedback online, which increases transparency and reduces corruption and paperwork.
5. Public safety. CCTV, emergency alert systems and data analytics help in crime prevention, disaster warning and quick response.
6. Smart healthcare and education. Telemedicine, electronic health records, e-learning and digital libraries make services accessible to all.
7. Economic growth. Digital payment, e-commerce, start-ups and IT jobs boost the local economy.
8. Data and planning. The Internet of Things (IoT), big data and AI give planners real-time information for better decisions.

Challenges

High cost, cybersecurity and privacy risks, lack of skilled manpower, poor internet infrastructure and the digital divide can slow development.

Conclusion

IT is the key driver of smart cities, making them efficient, safe, green and citizen-friendly. With proper planning, investment, security and public awareness, smart cities can greatly improve life in Nepal and elsewhere.

The 7Cs are seven qualities of effective technical communication.

1. Clear. The message should be easily understood, with a single purpose and simple words. Unclear: "Utilize the facility for data retrieval." Clear: "Use the tool to get the data."
2. Concise. Say what is needed in the fewest words, avoiding repetition. Wordy: "Due to the fact that..." Concise: "Because..."
3. Concrete. Use specific facts, figures and details rather than vague words. Vague: "The server was very slow." Concrete: "The server took 12 seconds to respond."
4. Correct. Information, grammar, spelling and format must be accurate, and the tone suitable. Example: the correct date, name and figures in a report.
5. Complete. Include all the information the reader needs to act (who, what, when, where, why, how). Example: "The meeting is at 10 am on Sunday in Room 5" rather than "The meeting is on Sunday."
6. Courteous. Be polite, respectful and considerate of the reader's viewpoint. Example: "Kindly send the report by Friday" instead of "Send the report now."
7. Coherent (Consistent). Ideas should be logically connected and flow smoothly with proper transitions. Example: arranging steps of an installation manual in sequence.

Applying the 7Cs makes technical documents professional and effective.

Law

Law is a system of rules made and enforced by the state or a recognized authority to regulate behaviour in society. It is written, binding on all, and breaking it brings legal punishment such as fines or imprisonment (e.g. Electronic Transactions Act).

Morality

Morality is a set of personal or social beliefs about right and wrong, derived from culture, religion, conscience and upbringing. It is not enforced by courts; violation results in guilt, social disapproval or loss of reputation (e.g. honesty, kindness).

Relation and differences

Law and morality often overlap (both condemn murder and theft), but an act can be legal yet immoral (lying to a friend) or moral yet illegal in an unjust law. Together they maintain order and justice.

ChatGPT

ChatGPT is a conversational AI chatbot developed by OpenAI and released in November 2022. It is based on large language models of the GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer) family and trained on large text data with human feedback. It can answer questions, write essays and code, summarize, translate and hold dialogue. Limitations include occasional wrong ("hallucinated") answers, bias and concerns about misuse in education.

DeepSeek

DeepSeek is an AI company and chatbot from China, whose models (such as DeepSeek-V3 and the reasoning model R1) became widely known in early 2025. Its models are notable for being developed at comparatively low cost, being largely open-weight, and performing strongly in reasoning, mathematics and coding. Concerns include data privacy, censorship and security.

Comparison

Both are generative AI chat tools used for writing, coding and learning. ChatGPT is proprietary, while DeepSeek released open model weights, making it cheaper and customizable. Both should be used critically, verifying their answers.

Group discussion

A group discussion (GD) is a structured conversation in which several participants exchange views on a topic to reach a conclusion or demonstrate communication skills. It is used in classes, meetings and selection processes. Qualities required include knowledge of the topic, clarity, listening, leadership, teamwork, politeness, and not dominating or interrupting. A good GD has an opening, development and a summary.

Interview

An interview is a formal, purposeful, face-to-face (or online) conversation between an interviewer and an interviewee, mostly to select a candidate for a job, admission or scholarship. Stages include preparation (research the organization, prepare answers, documents), conduct (greeting, smart dress, clear and honest answers, eye contact, positive body language) and follow-up (thank-you message).

Difference

A GD involves many participants interacting with each other and assesses teamwork and leadership, whereas an interview is mainly a two-way question-and-answer session assessing an individual's suitability.

Academic English

Academic English is the formal variety of English used in universities, research papers, textbooks, reports, essays and conferences. It is intended to present knowledge clearly, logically and credibly to an educated readership, and it differs from everyday conversational English.

Features

1. Formality. Academic writing uses a formal tone and avoids slang, contractions, colloquialisms and emotional language.

   • Informal: The experiment didn't work out and lots of kids got upset.
   • Formal: The experiment was unsuccessful and many participants were distressed. It prefers full forms (do not), precise verbs over phrasal verbs (investigate instead of look into) and third-person constructions.

2. Objectivity. The writing focuses on facts, evidence and logic rather than personal feelings or opinions. It avoids first-person pronouns ("I think") and uses passive or impersonal forms ("It can be concluded that..."), hedging ("may", "suggests") and cited sources. Biased or emotive words are avoided.

3. Precision. Information is exact and specific, with accurate data, dates, figures and carefully chosen words. Vague terms such as "a lot", "things" and "stuff" are replaced by quantities and definite nouns (e.g. "an increase of 15%").

4. Technicality. Subject-specific vocabulary and terminology (e.g. "algorithm", "bandwidth", "hypothesis") are used correctly and defined when necessary, enabling experts to communicate concisely. Over-complex jargon should be avoided for general readers.

Together these features give academic English its clarity, authority and professional quality.

Language

Language is a structured system of arbitrary vocal sounds, symbols and rules that human beings use to communicate thoughts, feelings and information within a community. It may be spoken, written or signed.

Characteristics of language

1. Arbitrary. There is no natural link between a word and its meaning; the same object is "book" in English and "kitab" in Hindi.
2. Symbolic. Words are symbols that stand for objects, ideas and actions.
3. Systematic and rule-governed. Sounds, words and sentences follow rules of phonology, morphology and syntax.
4. Human and species-specific. Only humans possess a complex language with creative use.
5. Creative / productive. Speakers can produce and understand an unlimited number of new sentences from a limited set of words.
6. Dynamic and changing. Language changes over time with new words, meanings and pronunciations.
7. Social. It is acquired and used in society and shaped by culture.
8. Learned, not inherited. Children acquire their mother tongue by exposure, though the capacity is innate.
9. Both spoken and written forms, with speech being primary.
10. Displacement. It can refer to things distant in time and space (past, future, imaginary).
11. Duality. It has two levels: meaningless sounds combine to form meaningful words.

These characteristics distinguish human language from animal communication.

Parts of speech

Parts of speech are the categories into which words are classified according to their function in a sentence. Traditionally there are eight.

1. Noun: names a person, place, thing or idea. Ram lives in Pokhara.
2. Pronoun: replaces a noun. She gave him a book.
3. Adjective: describes a noun or pronoun. She is a clever girl.
4. Verb: expresses action, state or occurrence. The children play football.
5. Adverb: modifies a verb, adjective or another adverb. He runs quickly.
6. Preposition: shows the relation of a noun/pronoun to another word. The book is on the table.
7. Conjunction: joins words, phrases or clauses. I like tea and coffee.
8. Interjection: expresses sudden emotion. Wow! What a goal!

Some grammarians add articles/determiners (a, an, the), as in The boy ate an apple.

Words can change their part of speech by function; for example "light" is a noun in "the light is on" and an adjective in "a light bag".

(i) Help the poor. (into request) → Please help the poor. / Would you please help the poor?

(ii) Where you live in? (into formal) → Where do you live? / In which place do you reside?

(iii) I hate the people teasing me. (into passive) → The people teasing me are hated by me.

(iv) It was raining. They played game. (into complex sentence) → Although it was raining, they played the game.

(v) His father kicked the bucket, yesterday. (use proper verb) → His father passed away yesterday.

(vi) It is all meaningless nonsense. (avoid needless repetition) → It is nonsense. (or "It is all meaningless.")

(vii) GRE score was not so high. (use concrete word) → His GRE score was only 290 out of 340. (a specific figure replaces "not so high")

(i) costlier (or more costly) – Platinum is costlier than diamond.

(ii) more reactive – Sodium is more reactive than gold.

(iii) farthest (furthest) – Pluto is the farthest planet in the solar system.

(iv) more interesting – A very few classes are more interesting than math classes.

(v) less valuable – Zinc is less valuable than diamond. (more valuable would be false)

(vi) safer – Cars are safer than motorbikes.

(vii) longer – A day on Mars is slightly longer than a day on Earth.

Application letter

Binod Karki Baneshwor, Kathmandu Mobile: 9810000000 Email: binod.karki@example.com

20 July 2024

The Human Resource Manager Yeti Airways Tilganga, Kathmandu

Subject: Application for the post of Senior IT Technician

Dear Sir/Madam,

I read your advertisement published in The Kathmandu Post dated 14 July 2024 inviting applications for the post of Senior IT Technician, and I wish to offer my candidacy for this position.

I hold a Bachelor's degree in Computer Application (BCA) and have more than four years of experience in installing, configuring and maintaining computer systems, networks and servers. I am skilled in troubleshooting hardware and software problems, managing LAN/WAN and Wi-Fi networks, handling backups, antivirus and user support, and maintaining IT inventory. I can work under pressure, follow schedules strictly and cooperate with teams, which I understand are essential in the aviation industry.

I am confident that I can contribute to the smooth operation of Yeti Airways' IT systems. My CV and copies of my testimonials are attached, and I would be glad to attend an interview at your convenience.

Thank you for your time and consideration.

Yours faithfully, Binod Karki

Enclosures: CV, certificates, experience letters, citizenship copy, two photographs

CURRICULUM VITAE

Name: Binod Karki Address: Baneshwor, Kathmandu Phone/Email: 9810000000 / binod.karki@example.com Date of birth: 5 January 1996 Nationality: Nepali

Career objective: To work as a Senior IT Technician in a reputed organization where I can use my technical expertise to ensure reliable IT operations.

Academic qualifications

Professional experience

• IT Technician, Himalayan Tech Pvt. Ltd., Kathmandu (2019-2024): maintained 150 workstations, servers and network equipment; resolved user issues; handled backups and security updates.
• Computer Operator, ABC Trading, Kathmandu (2018-2019).

Skills: Hardware repair, Windows/Linux administration, networking (TCP/IP, routers, switches), troubleshooting, CCTV and printers, antivirus and backup, good communication.

Training: CCNA (2020); Windows Server administration (2019).

Languages: Nepali, English, Hindi.

References: Available on request.

Signature: Binod Karki

Ethical Issues in Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

Introduction

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) systems now decide who gets a loan, which job applicant is shortlisted, what we see online and even how a car drives itself. While they offer great benefits, they also raise serious ethical questions about fairness, privacy, accountability and human welfare.

Major ethical issues

1. Bias and discrimination. ML models learn from historical data. If the data reflect prejudice, the system may discriminate on gender, race, caste or region, as in biased hiring tools or face recognition.
2. Privacy and surveillance. AI needs large amounts of personal data. Collecting, storing and analysing it without consent can violate privacy and enable mass surveillance.
3. Transparency and explainability. Many models act as "black boxes", so people cannot understand or challenge decisions that affect them.
4. Accountability and responsibility. When an autonomous system causes harm (a self-driving car accident or a wrong medical diagnosis), it is unclear whether the developer, user or company is liable.
5. Job displacement. Automation may replace workers in many fields, increasing unemployment and inequality unless people are retrained.
6. Misinformation and misuse. Deepfakes, fake news and automated cyber-attacks, as well as autonomous weapons, threaten security and trust.
7. Safety and security. Errors, hacking or manipulation of AI systems can cause real-world harm.
8. Intellectual property and environment. Training on creators' work without permission and the high energy use of large models raise further concerns.

Possible solutions

Developers should use diverse and representative data, test for bias, and make systems explainable. Governments should pass laws on data protection and AI accountability. Organizations should follow ethical guidelines, keep human oversight in critical decisions, and train workers. Public awareness and international cooperation are also needed.

Conclusion

AI and ML can improve healthcare, education and productivity, but without ethical safeguards they can harm individuals and society. Technology should serve humanity, so fairness, transparency, privacy and accountability must be built into every AI system from the start.

Title: Tea: The World's Favourite Beverage after Water

Tea is the second most popular drink in the world after water. It originated in Asia, where it has been grown and consumed for centuries. The tea plant needs a warm, humid climate with plenty of well-distributed rainfall, and it grows best in well-drained, slightly acidic soil on hill slopes at moderate altitude. Because of these geographical needs, tea is grown mainly in regions of Asia such as China, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.

Communication is the exchange of information, ideas or feelings between two or more people. It is a continuous process that has the following elements and stages:

1. Sender (source): the person who has an idea or message to communicate.
2. Encoding: the sender converts the idea into words, symbols, gestures or images.
3. Message: the content actually transmitted.
4. Channel (medium): the means used, such as speech, a letter, email, telephone or a video call.
5. Receiver: the person for whom the message is meant.
6. Decoding: the receiver interprets the message and gives it meaning.
7. Feedback: the receiver's response, which tells the sender whether the message was understood, and which makes communication two-way.
8. Noise: any barrier that distorts the message, such as physical noise, language problems, emotions or technical faults.

The process can be shown as: Sender → Encoding → Message through Channel → Decoding → Receiver → Feedback → Sender. Communication is effective only when the receiver understands the message as the sender intended.

i. Where have you been living? (present perfect continuous)

ii. Although my dad gave me a mobile, I have lost it. (complex sentence)

iii. Would you please show me the way to Tal Barahi Temple? (polite request; "Could you kindly show me..." is also correct)

iv. The adjective from "fool" is foolish.

i. is. The subject is "He"; "along with his teachers" is only an addition and does not make the verb plural.

ii. with. The correct expression is "pleased with" the news.

iii. did. The simple past is used because both actions are in the past and no earlier action is being stressed: "rewarded me for what I did".

iv. although. "Although it was raining, I went out" shows contrast and joins two clauses; "in spite of" needs a noun or gerund and "such as" does not fit.

i. The students are being taught by him.

ii. I love my performance being admired by people.

iii. I hate being followed by people.

iv. Was the crime confessed by him?

v. I was sent a message by Mandip. (or: A message was sent to me by Mandip.)

vi. The problem can be fixed by Shital now.

vii. You are requested to close the door. (or: Let the door be closed.)

i. The teacher who teaches at the college has three children.

ii. Kathmandu, where my father works, is the capital city of Nepal.

iii. There is a woman who is teaching English.

iv. He is the student whom I appreciate a lot. (or: ...that I appreciate a lot.)

v. The building which was destroyed in fire has now been rebuilt.

vi. The book which I bought yesterday is popular in the market these days.

(i) "I live in Gulmi" uses the simple present and states a permanent or habitual fact: Gulmi is my home. "I am living in Gulmi" uses the present continuous and suggests a temporary situation that may change, for example I am staying there for work or study at present.

(ii) "He has eaten rice" is present perfect: the action is completed but connected to the present (he is not hungry now, or he has just eaten); no time is stated. "He ate rice" is simple past: the action was completed at a definite time in the past, and it has no stated link with the present.

Technical writing is a type of writing that communicates specialised, factual information about science, technology, engineering, computing or business to a defined audience so that the readers can understand it or act on it. Examples are user manuals, reports, proposals, instructions, specifications, documentation and emails. It is clear, accurate, concise, objective, organised and audience-centred, and it uses precise terms, headings, lists and visuals instead of decoration.

Purposes of technical writing

1. To inform: it presents facts, data and results accurately, as in progress reports, research papers and product descriptions.
2. To instruct: it guides readers to perform a task step by step, as in installation guides, manuals and procedures.
3. To explain: it makes a complex process or technology understandable for non-experts, as in white papers and help documentation.
4. To persuade: it convinces decision-makers to accept a proposal, buy a product or approve a project, as in proposals and recommendation reports.
5. To document and record: it preserves decisions, designs, code and test results for future reference, audit and maintenance.
6. To support decision-making: managers use feasibility studies and analyses to choose between alternatives.
7. To ensure safety and legal compliance: clear warnings, standards and specifications protect users and the organisation.
8. To facilitate communication within and between organisations: it keeps teams, clients and departments working with the same understanding.

In short, the purpose of technical writing is to make technical information usable by the reader, saving time and cost and reducing errors.

Yes, I agree that listening is more important than speaking, because communication succeeds only when messages are received and understood. Speaking without listening is merely talking.

Reasons

1. Listening comes first. A child learns language by listening long before speaking, and a person who does not listen cannot learn a language, a skill or a subject. We spend more of our communication time listening than speaking.
2. Understanding. A speaker may be perfectly fluent, but if the listener misses the point, the message fails. Poor listening causes errors, repeated work and misunderstanding in offices and classrooms.
3. Learning and knowledge. Students get most of their knowledge from lectures, discussions and instructions. Good listeners take better notes, and they learn more.
4. Relationships and trust. Listening shows respect and empathy. People trust those who listen to their problems, so it is the basis of friendship, teamwork and leadership.
5. Better speaking and decision-making. A good listener collects facts and opinions before speaking, so the speech is relevant and the decisions are better. Customers and clients also expect an organisation to listen to their needs.
6. Conflict resolution. Many quarrels end when each side listens to the other.

Counter point: speaking is also needed to express ideas, persuade and lead. However, speech is effective only when it responds to what has been heard. As the saying goes, we have two ears and one mouth so that we may listen twice as much as we speak.

Therefore, listening is the more important skill, though both are complementary parts of effective communication.

The Role of Technology in Education: Opportunities and Challenges

Technology has changed the way knowledge is created, shared and acquired. From projectors and computers to the internet, mobile applications, learning management systems and artificial intelligence, digital tools have become part of classrooms all over the world. In Nepal, the COVID-19 lockdown showed both how useful and how difficult technology-based education can be.

Opportunities

1. Access to information. The internet gives students access to e-books, journals, videos and open courses such as those on Coursera and Khan Academy. A student in a remote village can learn from the best teachers in the world.
2. Flexible and distance learning. Online classes, recorded lectures and platforms like Zoom, Google Classroom and Moodle allow learning anytime and anywhere. Working people can study without leaving their jobs.
3. Interactive and engaging learning. Simulations, animations, educational games and virtual labs make difficult concepts, particularly in science and computing, easier to understand.
4. Personalised learning. Adaptive software and AI tutors adjust the pace and content to each learner.
5. Efficient administration and assessment. Online admission, result processing, attendance, quizzes and automatic grading save time for teachers and institutions.
6. Collaboration and skills. Tools for sharing documents and discussion forums develop teamwork and digital skills required in the modern job market.

Challenges

1. Digital divide. Many rural and poor families lack computers, electricity and internet access, so technology can increase inequality.
2. Lack of training. Teachers and students may not have enough digital skills, and institutions may lack infrastructure and funds.
3. Distraction and misuse. Social media, games and unsuitable content reduce concentration; cheating and plagiarism are also easier.
4. Health and social problems. Long screen time harms eyesight and posture, and reduces face-to-face interaction.
5. Privacy and security. Student data may be exposed to hacking and misuse.
6. Quality and reliability. Not all online information is correct, and online learning cannot completely replace the guidance of a teacher.

Conclusion

Technology is a powerful tool, but not a replacement for teachers. Its opportunities can be realised if governments and schools invest in infrastructure, train teachers, provide affordable internet and teach students to use it ethically. With a balanced approach, technology can make education more inclusive, effective and relevant to the future.

Summary

The field of Information Technology is changing rapidly and is reshaping business, society and daily life. Cloud computing lets organisations store data and use computing power over the internet at lower cost and with greater flexibility. Artificial intelligence automates tasks, analyses large amounts of data and supports decisions in areas such as healthcare, finance and education. Blockchain provides secure, transparent and tamper-resistant records, and the Internet of Things connects everyday devices so that they can collect and exchange data. As more systems depend on networks, cyber security has become vital to protect data and privacy from attacks. These advances also raise ethical concerns, including privacy, bias, job loss and responsible use. IT professionals must therefore keep learning new skills and use technology responsibly for the benefit of society.

The Advantages of Using the Internet

The internet has become one of the most useful inventions of modern times, and it offers many advantages in our daily life. First of all, it is a vast source of information; students and researchers can find books, articles and tutorials within seconds. In addition, it makes communication fast and cheap, because email, messaging and video calls connect people across the world. Moreover, it has made education more flexible through online courses and virtual classes. Similarly, it helps business and banking, since people can shop, pay bills and transfer money without leaving home. It also provides entertainment, such as music, films and games, and creates new jobs and freelancing opportunities. Therefore, if it is used wisely, the internet saves time, money and effort, and it improves the quality of life.

How the paragraph is coherent

• Unity: every sentence supports the single topic stated in the topic sentence, the advantages of the internet.
• Logical order: it moves from the general statement to specific advantages (information, communication, education, business, entertainment) and ends with a concluding sentence.
• Transitional devices: words such as "first of all", "in addition", "moreover", "similarly", "also" and "therefore" link the ideas smoothly.
• Repetition and reference: key words such as "internet" and pronouns such as "it" keep the reader's attention on the same subject.
• Parallel structure and consistent tense: similar ideas are expressed in similar grammatical forms in the present tense, which makes the paragraph easy to follow.

Group discussion is a structured oral communication activity in which a small number of people (usually 6 to 12) exchange views on a topic to reach a conclusion, solve a problem or share ideas. It is widely used in classrooms, selection tests for jobs and admissions, and in meetings.

Features

• A topic or problem is given, and participants speak in turn or spontaneously.
• There may be a moderator, but there is no fixed answer.
• It tests knowledge, communication, listening, leadership, teamwork and attitude.

Tips for effective participation

• Understand the topic and listen carefully to others.
• Start with confidence, speak clearly, briefly and politely, and support points with facts or examples.
• Do not interrupt, shout or dominate; respect other opinions and disagree politely.
• Use positive body language and eye contact.
• Summarise or conclude if the group asks for it.

A good group discussion encourages critical thinking and collective decision-making.

Language as a tool of communication

Language is a system of sounds, words and grammar (spoken, written or signed) by which human beings express thoughts, feelings and information. It is the most important tool of communication because:

• It expresses ideas precisely, including abstract and complex ones that gestures cannot convey.
• It allows the exchange of information between individuals and groups, and across time through writing and recording.
• It preserves and transmits knowledge, culture, history and traditions from one generation to the next.
• It builds social relations, since it is used to greet, request, persuade, command, console or entertain.
• It is the medium of education, trade, administration and technology.
• It shapes thinking and identity.

Its effectiveness depends on a shared code between speaker and listener, on clarity and on suitable choice of words for the audience and situation. Barriers such as different languages, jargon and ambiguity can reduce its power as a tool.

Review: "Pashupati Prasad" (a film worth watching)

Last weekend I watched the Nepali film Pashupati Prasad with my friends at a cinema hall in Kathmandu. It is a drama-comedy that follows the struggles of a young man from a village who comes to the capital in search of a better life.

Story and performance. The hero faces poverty, unemployment, cheating and loneliness in the city, yet he never loses his honesty and sense of humour. The director has mixed laughter with sadness in a natural way. The actors give convincing performances, and the dialogues feel real. Photography of both city streets and village scenes is attractive, and the background music matches every mood.

Weaknesses. The second half is a little slow, and a couple of songs could have been shortened.

Why I recommend it. The film shows the real problems of ordinary Nepalis, such as migration, hardship and social inequality, without becoming boring or preachy. It made us laugh, and it also made us think about our own attitude to people who come from poor backgrounds. It is suitable for all ages, and the message of patience and honesty is especially valuable for students.

I give it four stars out of five and I strongly recommend it to all readers of this magazine who enjoy meaningful cinema.

Kathmandu 2022 June 30

The Manager Human Resource Department CAS Trading House Kathmandu

Subject: Application for the post of System Administrator

Dear Sir/Madam,

With reference to your advertisement published in The Kathmandu Post on 26th June, 2022, I wish to apply for the post of System Administrator in your esteemed organisation. I have a bachelor's degree in computer applications and practical experience in installing, configuring and maintaining computer systems and networks. I am confident that my skills will be useful to your company.

My experience includes managing Windows and Linux servers, local area networks, user accounts, data backup and security. I can troubleshoot hardware and software problems quickly, and I am able to work in a team as well as independently. I enclose my CV and copies of my certificates for your consideration.

I would be grateful if you would give me an opportunity for an interview. I assure you of my honest and hard work if I am selected.

Yours faithfully, Anil Sharma

CURRICULUM VITAE

Name: Anil Sharma Address: Baneshwor, Kathmandu Phone: 98XXXXXXXX Email: anil.sharma@example.com Date of birth: 2 March 1998 Nationality: Nepali

Objective: To work as a System Administrator and contribute to the secure and reliable operation of the organisation's IT systems.

Academic qualifications

Work experience

• IT Assistant, ABC Pvt. Ltd., Kathmandu (2021 to 2022): maintained 40 computers, managed LAN and user accounts, performed regular backups.

Technical skills: Windows Server, Linux administration, networking (TCP/IP, DNS, DHCP), firewall and antivirus management, troubleshooting, database basics (SQL), shell scripting.

Languages: Nepali, English, Hindi

Interests: Reading technology blogs, networking and football

References

1. Prof. Ram Prasad Adhikari, Principal, XYZ College, Kathmandu
2. Mr. Hari Thapa, Manager, ABC Pvt. Ltd., Kathmandu

• receipt / recipe: I kept the receipt of the laptop as proof of purchase. My mother gave me the recipe for momo.
• stranger / foreigner: A stranger asked me the way to the bus park (a person I do not know). A foreigner from Japan visited Pokhara (a person from another country).
• experience / experiment: She has five years of teaching experience. The students performed an experiment in the laboratory.
• cancel / postpone: The college cancelled the picnic because of the strike (it will not take place). The meeting was postponed until Friday (it will take place later).
• homework / housework: The teacher gave us a lot of homework in mathematics. My sister helps my mother with the housework such as cleaning and cooking.
• noise / sound: The noise of the traffic disturbed our study (unpleasant sound). I heard the sweet sound of a flute (any thing that can be heard).

i. We are usually have lunch out on Sundays. → We usually have lunch out on Sundays. (a verb phrase needs only one main verb; "are" is extra)

ii. We can take a picnic but what will be doing if it starts to rain? → We can take a picnic but what shall we do if it starts to rain? (future continuous is wrong; simple future or "what will we do")

iii. She stayed at home because she was having a cold? → She stayed at home because she had a cold. (stative "have" for illness is not used in the continuous, and the sentence is a statement, not a question)

iv. While I drove along I suddenly remembered that I had left the freezer door open. → While I was driving along, I suddenly remembered that I had left the freezer door open. (continuous for the background action)

v. The last time I saw him he was getting on a bus, eating an ice cream. → No error. (this is the correct sentence)

vi. Breakfast is normally being served in the dining room but today it is served in the coffee shop. → Breakfast is normally served in the dining room but today it is being served in the coffee shop.

vii. When did you return back to your hometown? → When did you return to your hometown? ("back" is redundant)

viii. She was disliking vegetarian food at first but now she's enjoying it whenever she has been having it. → She disliked vegetarian food at first but now she enjoys it whenever she has it. (stative verbs such as "dislike" are not used in the continuous, and the tenses are made consistent)

The Role of Social Media in Nepalese Politics

Social media platforms such as Facebook, TikTok, X (Twitter), YouTube and Viber have become an important part of Nepali life, with millions of users. Politics has not remained outside this change: parties, leaders, journalists and ordinary citizens now use social media to communicate, mobilise and criticise.

Positive roles

1. Political awareness and information. Citizens get news about government decisions, budgets, elections and corruption instantly, without depending only on newspapers, radio and television.
2. Election campaigns. Parties and candidates use online campaigns, live videos and advertisements to reach young voters cheaply, and first-time voters learn about manifestos.
3. Public participation and accountability. People question leaders, share complaints and demand answers. Campaigns and hashtags have pressured the government on issues such as corruption, accountability and public services.
4. Mobilisation. Protests, petitions and social movements are organised quickly through online groups, and the diaspora can also take part in national debates.
5. Direct link between leaders and citizens. Politicians can explain their views without media filters, and citizens can reach them.

Negative roles

1. Fake news and misinformation. Rumours, edited photos and misleading videos spread faster than the truth and can mislead voters.
2. Hate speech and polarisation. Abuse, trolling and propaganda can increase hatred between political, ethnic and religious groups.
3. Character assassination and privacy violation. Personal attacks and leaks can harm reputations unfairly.
4. Echo chambers. Users see only the opinions they already agree with, which strengthens extremism.
5. Digital divide. Rural and elderly people with no access are less represented in the online debate.

Conclusion

Social media is a double-edged sword in Nepalese politics. It has made politics more open, participatory and accountable, but it also spreads falsehood and hatred. The government should make fair and clear laws, citizens should check facts before sharing, and leaders should behave responsibly, so that social media may strengthen democracy in Nepal.

Formal English is the style of language used in serious, official and professional situations, such as business letters, reports, academic essays, applications, speeches and official documents.

Main features

• Complete sentences with correct grammar, and often longer, complex structures.
• No contractions (do not, cannot rather than don't, can't), no slang, idioms or colloquial expressions.
• Precise and polite vocabulary (e.g. "purchase" instead of "buy", "inform" instead of "tell", "request" instead of "ask for").
• Impersonal and objective tone; the passive voice is common ("It is recommended that...").
• Careful organisation and punctuation, with no exclamations or emotional language.
• Polite openings and endings such as "Dear Sir/Madam" and "Yours faithfully".

Example: Informal: "Sorry, I can't come to the meeting." Formal: "I regret that I shall be unable to attend the meeting."

Formal English shows respect, clarity and professionalism, and it is suitable when the audience is unfamiliar or senior or when the document is official.

Primary gestures are the basic, natural hand and body movements that people use to communicate directly, without using words, or alongside speech. They are the main form of non-verbal communication by the body, and many are understood across cultures.

Examples: nodding the head for "yes" and shaking it for "no" (varies in some cultures), waving the hand to greet or to say goodbye, pointing to indicate direction or an object, a raised palm to say "stop", shrugging shoulders to show "I don't know", a thumbs-up for approval, and smiling or frowning to show feelings.

Functions

• They replace words when speech is impossible (noisy places, long distance).
• They emphasise or clarify what is spoken.
• They show feelings and attitudes such as agreement, surprise or anger.

Meaning of gestures can differ between cultures, so a speaker should use them carefully and in a natural way.

a) By "inner simplicity" the writer means a pure, innocent and uncomplicated state of mind, free from ego, greed, pretence and the burden of worldly desires, like the mind of a child. It is the natural peace of a heart that is content and honest.

b) People forget the memories of a beautiful childhood because they become engulfed in the race for money, status, possessions and responsibilities. Materialism and ego fill the mind, leaving no place for the joy and innocence of early life.

c) The 'dual responsibility' of a human being is to look after the material needs of life (earning a living and caring for the family and society) and, at the same time, to keep the inner self pure, peaceful and simple, that is, the responsibility towards both the outer and the inner world.

d) No, people do not necessarily get peace in institutions and ashrams. Peace is a state of the mind, and it cannot be bought or given from outside. A person who carries ego and desires into an ashram stays restless, while a person with inner simplicity can find peace anywhere.

e) Meanings

• sparkling: shining brightly, lively and full of joy
• engulfed: completely covered or swallowed up
• entice: to attract or tempt someone by offering pleasure or advantage
• ego-baggage: the heavy load of pride and self-importance a person carries
• cater: to supply or provide what is needed or wanted

f) Title: "Inner Simplicity: The Path to Peace" (or "Return to Childhood Innocence").

Three books I have read other than my course books are Muna Madan by Laxmi Prasad Devkota, Seto Bagh by Diamond Shumsher Rana, and Wings of Fire by A. P. J. Abdul Kalam. The best one for me is Muna Madan.

Plot. Madan, a young Newar trader of Kathmandu, leaves his wife Muna and his old mother to earn money in Lhasa, ignoring Muna's plea that "a man does not become great by wealth, but by humanity". In Tibet he falls ill with fever on the way back, and his companions abandon him. A Bhote (Tibetan) man takes care of him and saves his life, so Madan understands that humanity is greater than caste and wealth. Meanwhile, Muna dies at home of grief and neglect. When Madan returns, he finds his mother dead, his wife dead and the house empty; he can only remember Muna's love.

Characters. Madan (ambitious, later humble), Muna (loving, wise and devoted), Madan's mother, the Bhote who saves Madan's life, and Madan's friend.

Setting. Kathmandu and the road to Lhasa, in an earlier period of Nepali society.

Why I enjoyed it most. The poem is written in simple jhyaure rhythm, so it is musical and easy to remember. I was moved by its picture of love, separation, sacrifice and the theme that humanity is the highest religion.

Why I recommend it. It teaches that money cannot replace family and kindness, and it also shows the beauty of Nepali language and culture. Every Nepali student should read it.

The list of expressions is not given with the question, so suitable expressions are used here.

i. He was the last person we expected to produce the answer. → He was the least likely person to come up with the answer.

ii. I used to love travelling alone but now I have stopped enjoying it. → I used to love travelling alone but now I no longer enjoy it.

iii. I can't go abroad because my passport has expired. → I can't go abroad because my passport is out of date.

iv. A holiday always doesn't match your expectations. → A holiday does not always live up to your expectations.

v. At the beginning of her holiday she caught flu. → To begin with, she came down with flu on her holiday.

Biratnagar 2023 July 10

The Manager Human Resource Department Grand and Gracious Company Dharan

Subject: Application for the post of Software Designer

Dear Sir/Madam,

I have learnt from your vacancy announcement that Grand and Gracious Company needs a software designer for its city office in Dharan. I would like to apply for this post.

I have recently completed my bachelor's degree in computer applications from Tribhuvan University. I have studied programming, databases, systems analysis and design, and I have built several small software projects, including a student information system. I have good computer knowledge, and I can speak confidently and write effectively in English, as your advertisement requires. During my studies and internship I worked with teams of other IT organisations, and I am able to develop contacts and collaborate to obtain timely information on current initiatives and studies related to the work assigned.

I have attached my CV, and copies of my academic certificates and testimonials. I hope you will consider my application favourably and call me for an interview. I assure you that I shall work sincerely and give the best of my ability.

Yours faithfully, Suman Rai Phone: 98XXXXXXXX Email: suman.rai@example.com

i. The peace convoy was front page news for two weeks.

ii. They tried to find out more about the candidate's background.

iii. He is a civil servant but he moonlights as a plumber on the side.

iv. They are such good friends that they always sit side by side.

v. The laundry business was a front for the gang's criminal activities.

vi. Computers can crash, so always keep a back up copy of your data.

vii. The guerillas are members of the national liberation front.

i. "He may not have seen her" expresses possibility: perhaps he did not see her, and we are not sure. "He can't have seen her" expresses a strong logical conclusion: it is impossible that he saw her.

ii. "She usually prepares the task when her teacher enters" shows a habit: she prepares at that time every day. "She is usually preparing the task when her teacher enters" shows that at the time the teacher enters, she is in the middle of preparing, and it happens often; the continuous stresses an action in progress (and may suggest mild criticism).

iii. "He said it was entertaining" reports his opinion directly and sincerely. With quotation marks, "entertaining" suggests irony or doubt, meaning he used that word but it may not be true or he did not mean it literally.

iv. "Ask a teacher" means any teacher, not a particular one. "Ask the teacher" means a particular teacher known to both the speaker and the listener.

v. "When she heard the melodious song everyone started singing": everyone started singing as she heard it, almost at the same time. "When she had heard the melodious song everyone started singing": she had finished hearing it first, and then everyone started singing; the past perfect shows the earlier action.

A Visit to Bhaktapur Durbar Square

Last winter I visited Bhaktapur Durbar Square with my classmates. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, about 13 km east of Kathmandu, and it was the royal palace of the Malla kings. We entered through the old gate and walked on brick-paved streets surrounded by temples and palaces.

The most striking sights were the Fifty-five Window Palace, the golden gate (Sun Dhoka) with its beautiful carving, the Nyatapola temple, which has five storeys and stands on a stone platform guarded by stone figures, and the Vatsala Durga temple. The wood carvings on windows and doors were amazing. A guide told us the stories of the Malla rulers, and the area was famous for pottery and king curd, which we also tasted. Although the earthquake of 2015 damaged some monuments, many have been restored.

The visit gave us pride in our history, art and culture, and we promised to help to protect it.

i. Their ship went down in a hurricane, as a result of which they were nearly drowned.

ii. They next found some driftwood and built a bonfire on the beach, and then they caught some fish, which they grilled over the fire.

iii. Afterwards, they gathered palm leaves and built themselves a rough shelter.

iv. They suffered a sleepless night because of all the insects, and consequently they began to lose heart.

v. They could not find any fresh water, and therefore they were afraid that they would not be able to survive on the island.

Headlines are written in a short style, leaving out articles and auxiliary verbs, using the present tense for past events and the infinitive "to" for the future.

i. "Bus fares set to rise says report." → According to a report, bus fares are going to increase.

ii. "Buses to be axed in bid to cut costs says bus chief." → The head of the bus company says that some bus services will be stopped in an attempt to reduce costs. ("Axed" means cancelled.)

iii. "Clash over threat to axe buses - passengers slam bus chief." → There is a disagreement over the threat to cancel buses, and passengers have severely criticised the bus chief.

iv. "Minister backs bus chief." → The minister supports the bus chief.

v. "Kidnapper arrested from the hotel." → The police have arrested a kidnapper at (from) a hotel.

• deadwood: The new manager removed the deadwood from the office, those employees who did no useful work.
• oafish: His oafish behaviour at the wedding embarrassed his whole family.
• perpetrated: The crime was perpetrated by a gang of thieves during the night.
• vented the fury: After the defeat, the angry fans vented their fury on the referee.
• mishap: The journey was completed without any mishap.

Older people are valuable members of society because of their experience, but in Nepal many suffer from poverty, poor health, loneliness and neglect as the joint family system weakens and young people migrate. I would improve their conditions through the joint efforts of the state, local communities and families.

What the state should do

1. Social security: raise and regularly pay the senior citizen allowance, and introduce pensions for those who have no income.
2. Health care: provide free or cheap check-ups and medicine, geriatric wards in hospitals and mobile health camps for the villages.
3. Laws and protection: enforce the law that requires children to look after parents and punish abuse and abandonment.
4. Housing and facilities: build old-age homes and day-care centres where needed, and make transport, public buildings and offices accessible and friendly to the elderly, with priority services.
5. Employment and use of skills: let the capable elderly work part-time or as advisers and trainers.

What local communities should do

1. Form senior citizens' clubs and community centres for recreation, meetings and shared activities.
2. Organise volunteers, youth clubs and schools to visit and help elderly people living alone with shopping, reading and medical visits.
3. Run awareness programmes to respect elders and encourage learning from their wisdom, through storytelling programmes for children.
4. Create local funds and welfare groups for emergency help.

Role of families: care, time and love are what the old need most, and no scheme can replace them.

If these steps are followed together, older people can live with dignity, security and happiness.

Both television and mobile phones are major media of information and communication. In my opinion, the mobile phone is the better medium.

Television

Advantages: It combines sound and visuals, so it is attractive and easy for even uneducated people to understand. It reaches a large audience at once, and it is good for family entertainment and for live news and events.

Disadvantages: It is one-way, with fixed schedules, so viewers cannot choose when to watch. It needs a fixed place, electricity and a cable or dish connection. It does not allow personal communication, and long viewing wastes time.

Mobile phone

Advantages: It is portable and can be used anywhere and at any time. It offers two-way communication by calls, messages and video calls, and with the internet it gives news, television channels, video, e-books, banking and education in one device. Users choose what they want to see, and it is increasingly affordable.

Disadvantages: The small screen can strain the eyes, and battery and data are needed. Addiction, distraction, fake news, cyber crimes and privacy problems are serious.

Comparison and conclusion

Television is a one-way, fixed and passive medium, whereas the mobile phone is interactive, personal, portable and multi-purpose; even television programmes can now be watched on it. Thus the mobile phone gives faster and wider access to information and communication. Provided that it is used wisely, it is the better medium.

Theme of the poem "Castaway"

"Castaway" is a poem about a person who is left alone, shipwrecked and isolated on an island, and about how he faces the loneliness. The central theme is human survival, loneliness and the strength of the human spirit.

Main ideas:

• The castaway is cut off from society, and the sea and the empty island make him feel the pain of isolation.
• He struggles with hunger, fear and despair, yet he does not give up hope; he depends on his courage, memory and imagination.
• The poem shows that human beings are dependent on companionship, and that isolation tests the mind as much as the body.
• It also shows the power and indifference of nature compared with the weakness of man.

The poem therefore praises endurance and hope in the face of misfortune.

British English is the variety used in the United Kingdom, and American English is that used in the United States. They are mutually intelligible, but differ in several ways.

Nepali students are mostly taught British English, but both are correct if used consistently.

Gestures are movements of the hands, head, face or body that carry a message, and they form an important part of non-verbal communication.

Types

• Emblems: gestures with a direct meaning, such as the thumbs-up, waving and the "namaste" greeting.
• Illustrators: movements that go with speech to describe or stress it, such as showing size with hands.
• Affect displays: facial expressions and body movements showing feelings.
• Regulators: gestures that control conversation, such as nodding or raising a hand to speak.
• Adaptors: habitual movements like scratching or tapping, often showing nervousness.

Importance: gestures make speech more lively and clear, and they communicate feelings and attitudes where words are not possible. They help to build rapport in interviews and presentations.

Caution: their meanings differ across cultures (for example, the head nod in some countries), so they should be used with care and match the spoken words.