English II

An argument is a set of statements in which one or more statements (the reasons) are offered to support another statement (the conclusion). Its basic components are:

1. Reason (premise). A statement offered as evidence or support. An argument may have one or many reasons.

2. Conclusion. The statement that the reasons are meant to prove. It may be an intermediate conclusion, which is supported by a reason and itself supports a further claim, or the main conclusion, the final claim of the whole argument.

3. Indicator words. Words that signal the structure. Reason indicators: because, since, for, as. Conclusion indicators: therefore, so, thus, hence, consequently.

4. Assumptions (unstated premises). Ideas taken for granted but not stated, which link the reasons to the conclusion.

Example

Plastic bags pollute rivers (reason). Therefore, they should be banned (conclusion).

Here "Plastic bags pollute rivers" is the reason and "they should be banned" is the conclusion; the unstated assumption is that anything that pollutes rivers should be banned.

A longer example: Exercise improves health (reason 1). Healthy students perform better in class (reason 2). So schools should include daily exercise (main conclusion).

Science fiction is a kind of fiction that builds its story on imagined science, technology or scientific possibilities and asks "what if?" about their effect on human beings and society. Other kinds of fiction (realistic, historical, romantic, detective) depend on the world as it is or was, with no need for new science.

Distinguishing features, with examples from the textbook stories

1. Scientific or technological premise. The plot rests on a scientific idea. In Wells's The Land Ironclads, huge armoured war machines overturn trench warfare. In Aldiss's But Who Can Replace a Man?, intelligent machines run the farms after humans have gone.
2. Speculation about the future or an alternative world. Ballard's Billennium imagines an overpopulated future in which each person is allowed only a tiny floor space.
3. Social criticism. It uses the imagined world to comment on real issues: war and the illusion of civilisation (The Land Ironclads), human dependence on machines and their limits (But Who Can Replace a Man?), overpopulation and loss of privacy (Billennium).
4. Plausible rather than magical. Events are explained by science or reasoning, unlike fantasy, which relies on magic.
5. Concern with human consequences. The technology matters because of its effect on human values, such as freedom, space and survival.

Thus science fiction differs from other fiction in its setting, its scientific basis and its warning or questioning purpose.

Lists and bullets present a series of related items in a vertical, separated form, instead of a long running sentence. They are common in letters, e-mails, faxes and memos.

Major objectives

1. To make information easy to find and read at a glance.
2. To emphasise important points.
3. To organise parallel items (steps, features, requirements) clearly.
4. To save the reader's time by breaking up dense text.

Advantages

• Clarity and brevity: points are stated briefly without extra words.
• Better visual appeal: white space around the items makes the page look less crowded.
• Easy to remember and refer to: numbered lists allow quick reference ("see item 3").
• Show sequence or priority: numbers show order of steps, while bullets show items of equal weight.
• Easy to write and check: the writer can see if any item is missing.

Guidelines: introduce the list with a lead-in sentence; keep items in parallel grammatical form; use numbers for sequence and bullets for items without order; avoid long lists and too many levels.

Example: Please bring the following to the interview: (1) citizenship certificate, (2) academic transcripts, (3) two passport-size photographs.

In Brian Aldiss's But Who Can Replace a Man?, human beings have disappeared and machines manage the world. The Field-Minder (a class-seven machine) tries to organise the others. The Penner is a class-three brain, so it thinks itself superior, but it is only a small mobile unit lacking physical ability.

Why the tractors and the Field-Minder leave the Penner behind

• The Penner is physically weak and cannot move without help once it is damaged; the others are travelling to seek the truth about the missing humans and need machines that can keep up.
• The machines are specialised and rigid. Each follows its own programmed task and hierarchy and cannot adapt, so they have no reason to help a unit that cannot contribute.
• The Penner's claim to a high-class brain does not give it real value or authority among them, and its request is considered a burden to the journey.
• It shows the lack of compassion and flexibility of machines, who cannot improvise or care.

Why it becomes useless after crashing to the ground

The Penner is an upper-class brain, but it depends on a body that has no means of moving. When it falls and cannot get up, it has no wheels or limbs to recover. Its intelligence is narrow and cannot help it solve this simple physical problem.

Aldiss thus shows that machines, however clever, are limited and dependent: they cannot replace man, who can adapt, think broadly and help one another.

A leaflet is a small printed sheet, often folded, used to inform or persuade a target audience about a product, service, event or cause. The text on business communication gives these guidelines for designing a leaflet.

1. Know the purpose and audience. Decide whether the aim is to inform, promote or persuade, and write for the needs of the readers.
2. Attractive heading. Use a clear, eye-catching title that attracts attention and states the subject.
3. Brief and clear content. Use short sentences, simple words and bullets so the message can be read quickly. Include only the key information.
4. Logical organisation. Place the most important information first and group related ideas under subheadings.
5. Use of visuals. Add pictures, logos, charts and colour to attract attention, but do not crowd the page.
6. Readable layout. Use enough white space, suitable font sizes and styles, and a consistent design.
7. Persuasive tone. Highlight benefits to the reader and give a strong closing call to action.
8. Contact details. Include address, phone, e-mail or website so readers can respond.
9. Appropriate size and paper. Choose a size and quality of paper that suits the budget and purpose.
10. Proofread. Check spelling, facts and layout before printing.

Brainstorming is a pre-writing technique in which the writer lists, quickly and freely, every idea, fact, example and question that comes to mind about a topic, without judging or editing them. The aim is to generate many ideas, which are later sorted, selected and organised for the writing. It can be done alone or in a group.

Steps

1. Write the topic at the top of a page.
2. Jot down all ideas as they come, in words or phrases, without worrying about order or correctness.
3. Keep going until ideas run out.
4. Review the list: remove irrelevant items, group related ones and arrange them in order.
5. Use the groups to form an outline.

Example: topic "Load-shedding in Nepal"

Raw ideas: hydropower, dry season, study problems, business loss, inverter, solar, India import, poor planning, students, hospitals, generators, noise, cost.

Grouping:

• Causes: dry season, poor planning, low storage capacity
• Effects: disturbed study, business loss, hospital problems
• Solutions: solar, storage dams, import, efficient use

These groups then form the paragraphs of an essay on the topic.

Motor Cars: A Blessing or a Curse for Nepal?

Kathmandu and other cities in Nepal are known for traffic jams, noise and polluted air. Every year thousands of cars and motorbikes are added to roads that were built for far fewer vehicles. Is the widespread use of motor cars good or bad? This essay weighs both sides before reaching a conclusion.

Benefits of motor cars

First, cars give convenience and comfort. A family can travel door to door, carry luggage and avoid the crowding of public buses. Second, they save time on long journeys, especially where public transport is infrequent, as in many hill areas. Third, cars are important for emergencies, such as taking a patient to hospital quickly. Fourth, the motor industry gives employment to drivers, mechanics, sellers and fuel dealers, and brings revenue to the government through taxes. Finally, a car offers privacy and status for many people.

Disadvantages of motor cars

However, the disadvantages are serious. The most obvious is traffic congestion: a private car carries one to four people but occupies as much road space as a bus carrying fifty. Daily commuters lose hours in jams, which reduces productivity. Second, vehicles cause air and noise pollution; the dust and smoke in the Kathmandu valley harm the health of children and the elderly and cause respiratory diseases. Third, Nepal imports all its petroleum, so more cars drain foreign currency and raise dependence on India. Fourth, accidents are frequent, partly because of poor roads and weak traffic discipline. Fifth, parking and road construction consume land that could be used for homes, parks or farms.

Weighing the two sides

The benefits are mostly personal and short term; the costs fall on the whole community and last long. Cars are not bad in themselves; the problem is the large number of private cars on small roads with poor public transport. A bus or an electric vehicle can bring the benefits without much of the harm.

Conclusion

In light of the daily problems faced by commuters in the capital and elsewhere, the widespread use of private motor cars is, on balance, a bad thing. Nepal should improve the public transport system, encourage electric vehicles, enforce traffic rules and limit private car numbers. Cars should be a servant of society, not its master.

REPORT ON STAFF BENEFITS

To: Human Resource Director, Aurora Holdings Plc From: [Name], Human Resource Department Date: [Date] Subject: Additional staff benefits for Aurora Holdings Plc

1. Terms of Reference

The board decided to review staff benefits. As requested by the Human Resource Director, this report examines additional benefits that could be introduced and recommends the three most welcome to all staff.

2. Procedure

Information was collected by (a) a short questionnaire to a sample of employees in all departments, (b) interviews with department heads, and (c) a study of the benefit schemes of similar manufacturing companies and of published articles on employee benefits.

3. Findings

At present the company offers only a pension scheme and a subsidised canteen. The research shows that the following benefits are provided by comparable companies:

• Private health insurance and medical check-ups
• Life and accident insurance
• Paid study leave and training support
• Flexible working hours and extra paid leave
• Transport or travel allowance
• Performance bonus and profit sharing
• Childcare support or crèche
• Staff loans and housing support
• Recreation and sports facilities

The questionnaire showed that most employees ranked health insurance, a performance bonus and training and study support highest. Benefits such as a crèche or sports facilities were important to smaller groups only. Cost estimates show that these three benefits are affordable and would raise morale and productivity.

4. Conclusions

• The current package is limited and does not meet the varied needs of staff.
• Health insurance, a performance bonus and training support are the most valued by employees as a whole.
• These benefits would help the company to retain and attract staff and improve productivity.

5. Recommendations

It is recommended that the company introduce:

1. Health and accident insurance for all employees.
2. An annual performance-related bonus.
3. Training and study-leave support for professional development.

The remaining benefits could be reviewed in the future, depending on cost and staff demand.

[Signature] [Name and designation]

Option 1: The Land Ironclads by H.G. Wells

Wells's story, written in 1903, imagines giant armoured, caterpillar-tracked war machines (forerunners of the tank) that break a deadlocked war between two armies in trenches. The young lieutenant believes there are "other things in life better worth having than proficiency in war". He represents the idealistic view that human life should be about peace, culture and creative work. The war correspondent answers that civilisation itself has produced science, which in turn invented the rifles and guns used in war, so progress and war are bound up together.

What happens after the guns are fired

The lieutenant's side fires on the strange machines, but the shells have no effect on the ironclads. The machines, each holding a few men and carrying their own protection, advance over the trenches, cross them and capture the defenders, who are caught in confusion and surrender. The lieutenant's illusion that old methods, courage and discipline are enough is destroyed. The ironclads reach the trenches almost unharmed, the soldiers are overwhelmed or captured, and the war ends suddenly by the new technology, not by traditional heroism.

Is the war correspondent more realistic?

Yes, in the sense that his view matches events. He understands that war is decided by science and technology, and that civilisation cannot claim to be separate from the weapons it produces. The lieutenant's view is morally attractive but does not see how the world really works; his belief in valour and in a civilisation above war is shown to be naive when machines decide the battle.

But the story does not simply endorse the correspondent. Wells uses both characters to warn that scientific progress is double-edged: science can bring about a more peaceful life, but also more efficient killing. The lieutenant's ideals remain a valid criticism of a civilisation that uses its best minds for war. The correspondent is more realistic about how the world is; the lieutenant is more right about how it should be.

Option 2: Billennium by J.G. Ballard

Billennium (1962) is set in a future in which the real threat to humanity is not war but overpopulation. Cities are packed, and each person is permitted only a tiny space (about 4 square metres). People live in cubicles, stand in endless queues, and sleep in corridors; every public place is crowded.

Ballard shows the crisis through Ward and Rossiter. When they discover a hidden room behind a wall, they enjoy its extra space and secretly share it with friends. As more people are brought in, the room soon becomes as crowded as everywhere else, showing how little escape remains. At the end, Ward is ready to give up his own small cubicle for the sake of the group's wellbeing but cannot escape the crowd; a "billennium" of people leaves nothing for privacy or freedom.

The story warns that unchecked population growth erodes privacy, dignity, freedom and the quality of life. Cruelty is not needed; the simple pressure of numbers is enough to turn society into a dystopia. Thus, unlike earlier science fiction concerned with war and invasion, Ballard presents a quieter and more realistic danger.

Sentence: If cigarette advertising were banned, cigarette manufacturers would save the money they would otherwise have spent on advertising.

Basic reason (starting point): Banning cigarette advertising means manufacturers do not have to pay for advertising.

Intermediate conclusion: Cigarette manufacturers would save the money they would otherwise have spent on advertising.

Main conclusion: Therefore, advertising should be banned, since it would benefit manufacturers financially. (More cautiously, the argument supports the claim that a ban on cigarette advertising would not harm manufacturers' finances but would rather improve them.)

Structure

Reason: Advertising costs manufacturers a large sum of money. Intermediate conclusion: If it is banned, they save this money. Main conclusion: A ban on cigarette advertising is good even for the manufacturers.

Meetings are costly in time and money, so they must be planned and managed well. As a member, I would suggest the following measures.

Before the meeting

1. Clear purpose and agenda. Circulate an agenda in advance stating the topics, time and venue so that everyone can prepare.
2. Right participants. Invite only those who are relevant to the decisions.
3. Prepare. Read the papers and previous minutes, and collect facts for the topics.

During the meeting

4. Start and end on time. Respect the schedule and give each item a time limit.
5. Stick to the agenda. Avoid irrelevant discussion and personal arguments.
6. Active, respectful participation. Listen carefully, speak briefly and to the point, and allow others to speak.
7. Strong chairperson. The chair controls the discussion, summarises points and ensures all views are heard.
8. Reach decisions. Make clear decisions and assign responsibility and deadlines.

After the meeting

9. Minutes. Record decisions and action points and circulate them promptly.
10. Follow-up. Check that decisions are carried out.

With these measures, meetings become short, focused and productive.

Both are sub-genres of science fiction, but they differ in how they treat science and what they aim to do.

Hard science fiction

• Pays close attention to scientific accuracy and logic; events and inventions follow known science or plausible extensions of it.
• Focuses on ideas, problems and their consequences for society.
• Characters are often less important than the scientific concept.
• Example from the textbook: Wells's The Land Ironclads, which develops a plausible military technology (armoured tracked vehicles) and its effect on war; also Ballard's Billennium, which follows the logical effect of overpopulation.

Space opera

• Is adventure-centred: large-scale battles, interstellar empires, heroes and villains, exotic planets and spaceships.
• Science is used mainly as a background; accuracy matters less than excitement and romance.
• Strongly emotional and dramatic, often with a clear moral conflict.
• Example: stories such as Star Wars or Star Trek-style tales set across galaxies.

Main differences

A dystopia is an imagined society in which life has become miserable, controlled or unbearable. In Billennium, J.G. Ballard presents it through the effects of extreme overpopulation.

1. Lack of space. Each person has only a few square metres (about 4 m²); a room of 6 by 6 feet is considered luxurious. People live in cubicles and partitions cut up every room.
2. Crowding everywhere. Streets, cafes, cinemas and buses are always packed, and there are queues for everything. The city never sleeps because people sleep in shifts and in corridors.
3. Loss of privacy and freedom. Nobody can be alone. The hidden room Ward and Rossiter discover is the one place to be private, and even that is soon shared with others.
4. Competition for the basic necessities. Space, food and water are rationed; even a small gain in space is a privilege that others envy.
5. Acceptance of the situation. People do not rebel; they adapt, treat tiny space as normal, and think of 'luxury' as a few more feet. This quiet resignation is part of the horror.
6. Dehumanisation. Individuals lose their sense of dignity and become one of the crowd.
7. Tone. Ballard uses a calm, matter-of-fact style, so that the horror seems real and possible.

Thus the writer presents a dystopia not through war or tyranny but through the slow pressure of numbers.

Flaws in reasoning (fallacies) are errors that make an argument weak or invalid even though it may look convincing. They arise when the reasons do not truly support the conclusion.

How flaws appear

1. Irrelevant reasons: the evidence has no real connection with the conclusion (e.g. attacking the speaker instead of the argument, ad hominem).
2. Insufficient evidence: hasty generalisation from one or two cases ("Two Nepali buses were late, so all are late").
3. Ambiguous language: a word is used with two meanings in one argument.
4. Hidden or false assumptions: an unstated premise that is untrue.
5. False dilemma: presenting only two options when more exist.
6. Circular reasoning: the conclusion is used as its own reason.
7. Appeal to emotion, authority or popularity: "Everyone believes it, so it must be true."
8. Slippery slope: claiming that a small step will inevitably lead to a disaster.

Do they deceive readers? How?

Yes. Flawed reasoning can persuade people who do not examine it closely, because:

• It often sounds logical and uses confident language and indicator words such as "therefore".
• It appeals to emotions, prejudices or loyalties, so readers accept it without thinking.
• It uses vague words or half-truths that hide the gap between reason and conclusion.
• Readers who already agree with the conclusion are less likely to look for errors.

A critical reader should therefore identify the reasons and conclusion, check each link between them, and test whether the assumptions are true.

The essay Two Skills in the Use of Language (in the prescribed text) discusses two basic abilities needed to use a language effectively.

1. Skill of using language to express meaning (production/expression)

This is the ability to put thoughts, feelings and information into clear, correct and suitable words, in speech or writing. It requires knowledge of vocabulary and grammar, choosing words and sentence structures fit for the purpose, audience and occasion (formal or informal), and organising ideas logically. For example, a request to the principal should be worded politely and formally, while a message to a friend can be casual.

2. Skill of understanding language (interpretation/reception)

This is the ability to grasp the meaning of what others say or write, including implied meaning, tone, attitude and purpose, not only the literal words. It requires careful listening and reading, awareness of context, and the ability to read between the lines and evaluate what is said. For example, understanding that "It's quite warm in here" may be a request to open the window.

Summary

Good communication needs both skills: one to say what we mean and the other to understand what others mean. They support each other, and both improve with practice.

Question: Should female criminals who have children be exempted from imprisonment?

Rational decision making follows a series of steps: define the problem, identify the criteria, generate alternatives, evaluate them against the criteria, and choose and review the best option.

Step 1: Define the problem. Should the law exempt convicted women with dependent children from jail, or should they be imprisoned like others?

Step 2: Criteria. The decision should (a) protect the welfare of children, (b) uphold justice and deter crime, (c) protect society, and (d) be practical and affordable.

Step 3: Alternatives.

1. Full imprisonment, no exception.
2. Complete exemption from imprisonment for all such mothers.
3. Conditional approach: non-custodial punishment (community service, probation, house arrest, fines) for minor offences, and imprisonment, with support for the child, for serious crimes.

Step 4: Evaluation.

• Alternative 1 satisfies justice and equality, but harms innocent children, who lose their mother's care or grow up in prison. It fails criterion (a).
• Alternative 2 protects children but ignores justice, may encourage crime and is unfair to other offenders. It fails criteria (b) and (c).
• Alternative 3 protects children where possible, still punishes the offender, protects society from dangerous criminals, and costs less than prison. It meets all four criteria best.

Step 5: Decision. Female criminals with children should not be exempted automatically from all punishment, but they should be spared imprisonment in less serious cases, with alternative sentences such as probation and community service. In serious crimes, imprisonment may be necessary, but proper childcare arrangements or facilities for young children should be provided.

Step 6: Review. The policy should be monitored for its effects on child welfare and crime rates and adjusted if needed.

Communication is the process of sending and receiving information, ideas, thoughts or feelings between two or more people so that the message is shared and understood. It involves a sender, a message, a channel, a receiver and feedback.

Barriers of communication

1. Physical (environmental) barriers: noise, poor lighting, distance, faulty equipment or a bad telephone line distort the message.
2. Language barriers: difficult words, jargon, technical terms, slang, or a different mother tongue make the message hard to understand.
3. Semantic barriers: the same word can carry different meanings for different people, so the receiver decodes it wrongly.
4. Psychological (emotional) barriers: anger, fear, stress, prejudice or lack of interest prevent a person from listening openly.
5. Cultural barriers: differences in customs, gestures, values and beliefs lead to misunderstanding, for example a gesture that is polite in one culture but rude in another.
6. Organisational barriers: too many levels of hierarchy, rigid rules and poor channels delay or filter information.
7. Poor listening and attention: a distracted receiver misses or misreads the message.
8. Wrong channel or timing: using a long email for an urgent matter, or sending information too late, defeats the purpose.

These barriers can be reduced by using simple language, choosing the right channel, listening actively and seeking feedback.

I would like to work as a software developer, so the following application is written for that post.

---

Kathmandu, Nepal 15 Ashwin 2077

The Human Resource Manager Himalayan Software Solutions Pvt. Ltd. Baneshwor, Kathmandu

Subject: Application for the post of Software Developer

Dear Sir/Madam,

With reference to your advertisement in The Kathmandu Post dated 10 Ashwin 2077, I wish to apply for the post of Software Developer in your esteemed company.

I have completed the Bachelor of Computer Applications (BCA) from Tribhuvan University with a first division. During my study I learned programming in C, Java and Python, database management with MySQL, and web development with HTML, CSS and JavaScript. As a final-year project I developed a web-based library management system in a team of four. I also completed a three-month internship at a local IT firm, where I gained practical experience in coding, testing and teamwork.

I am hardworking, punctual and eager to learn new technologies. I am confident that my skills and enthusiasm will help your company achieve its goals. My resume and copies of my certificates are enclosed with this letter.

I would be grateful for an opportunity to appear for an interview at your convenience. Thank you for your consideration.

Yours faithfully,

Anil Sharma Mobile: 98XXXXXXXX Email: anil.sharma@example.com

Enclosures: Resume, academic certificates, citizenship copy

Pokhara: The City of Lakes

Nestled in the lap of the Annapurna range, Pokhara is among the most beautiful tourist destinations in Nepal. With its calm lakes, snow-capped mountains and warm hospitality, it attracts both foreign and domestic visitors throughout the year. Its natural beauty, cultural heritage and adventure opportunities make it specially significant for the country's tourism.

Location

Pokhara lies in Gandaki Province in western Nepal, at an altitude of about 820 metres above sea level, around 200 km west of Kathmandu. The city is built around Phewa Lake, and the peaks of Machhapuchhre (the "Fishtail"), Annapurna and Dhaulagiri rise just north of it, so the mountain views are among the closest of any city in the world.

Ways to reach there

Pokhara can be reached by road, by air, and by a combination of both. Tourist and public buses and private vehicles run from Kathmandu along the Prithvi Highway; the journey takes six to seven hours. Regular flights from Kathmandu take only about 25 to 30 minutes and give a spectacular view of the Himalayas. The new Pokhara International Airport has also made direct international and domestic flights possible. Buses from Butwal, Bhairahawa and other cities also reach Pokhara conveniently.

Unique experiences for tourists

Visitors can enjoy boating on Phewa Lake and visit the Tal Barahi temple on its island. At dawn, a visit to Sarangkot gives a golden sunrise over the Himalayas. Adventurous travellers can try paragliding, zip-lining, ultralight flights and white-water rafting. Other sights include Davis Falls, the Gupteshwor Cave, Begnas and Rupa lakes, the World Peace Pagoda and the International Mountain Museum. Pokhara is also the starting point for the famous Annapurna Circuit and Annapurna Base Camp treks. Lakeside offers many restaurants, cafes and shops where tourists can taste local food and enjoy lively evenings.

Conclusion

Pokhara combines scenic beauty, adventure and cultural richness in one place. A visit to this city leaves tourists with lasting memories, and it truly deserves to be called the jewel of Nepal's tourism.

PRESS RELEASE

FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE

Date: 20 Kartik 2078 Contact: Public Relations Department, Nepal Bank Ltd., Dharmapath, Kathmandu. Tel: 01-4XXXXXX. Email: pr@nepalbank.example

Nepal Bank Ltd. Moves to a New and Modern Location

Kathmandu: Nepal Bank Ltd. is pleased to announce that its main branch is shifting to a new, larger and more modern building at Naxal Marg, Naxal, Kathmandu, effective from Sunday, 1 Poush 2078.

The decision to relocate has been taken to serve customers better. The new premises have a spacious banking hall, more service counters, a dedicated customer service desk, a secure locker facility, ample parking, a lift and ramp for senior citizens and people with disabilities, and 24-hour ATM service. The bank has also upgraded its technology for faster and safer transactions.

The bank's services at the old office at Dharmapath will remain available until Friday, 29 Mangsir 2078. No services will be offered at the old location after that date. During the shift, the bank will remain closed on Saturday, 30 Mangsir 2078, but its online banking, mobile banking and ATM services will continue as usual. All existing account numbers, cards, cheque books and other banking arrangements will remain valid and unchanged.

The General Manager, Mr. Ram Prasad Shrestha, said, "We are moving to the new location to make our services more convenient, comfortable and efficient for our valued customers. We thank them for their trust and support and look forward to welcoming them to our new home."

Nepal Bank Ltd. requests customers to take note of the change and extends its apologies for any inconvenience during the transition.

For further information, please contact the Public Relations Department at the above address.

Issued by: Public Relations Department Nepal Bank Ltd.

-End-

Man versus machine in "But Who Can Replace Man?"

Brian W. Aldiss's story (also called "Who Can Replace a Man?") is set in a far future in which human beings have almost vanished and machines run the world. On the surface the machines seem superior: they are stronger, faster, tireless and carry out complicated tasks. Yet the story shows that man remains superior, because machines cannot think, plan or lead without him.

Plot in brief. Machines on a farm, among them the field-minder, tractors, the Brain, the radio and others, stop obeying the few remaining weak humans and try to set up a society that runs itself. They hold meetings and argue constantly about who should lead, since each is limited to its own specialised function.

Why machines are not superior

1. Limited and specialised intelligence: each machine is designed for one task. A field-minder can work the field but cannot reason about anything beyond it. The Brain is clever but cannot move.
2. Lack of initiative: the machines were built to obey; they cannot decide what to do in an unforeseen situation. Their long debates about leadership produce nothing.
3. Inability to cooperate: the machines are ranked by their level of intelligence and their pride, so rivalries stop them from cooperating, in contrast with humans who, for all their faults, can organise.
4. Dependence on humans: when they meet a surviving human who gives an order, they at once obey. The machines look for a master because they cannot function without one. They are unable to deal with the fact that men are no longer there to give orders.

Humans' strengths. Man has the ability to command, to create and to invent machines in the first place. Even when weak, a human being is able to take control since the machines respect his authority.

Irony. The title is rhetorical: nothing can replace man. Aldiss uses humour and irony to warn that excessive reliance on machines can make humans weak, and that machine intelligence, however impressive, is no substitute for human judgment, creativity and leadership.

Conclusion. On the evidence of the story, man is the superior being. Machines are powerful tools but remain dependent on their creators; their rebellion collapses and ends in the old order of obedience.

The conflict. In Brian Aldiss's story the human beings have disappeared from the farmlands, and the machines (the Field Minder, the Gardener, the Radio-Tractor, the Planter, the Pulveriser and others) are left to run things. Each is built for a single task and has a narrow degree of intelligence. The Brain Class machines, at the top of the hierarchy, are far away, so no one gives orders.

The conflict arises over leadership and authority. The machines quarrel about which of them should take command. The Field Minder, which is the most intelligent among them, tries to organise them, but the others refuse to obey a "mere" machine of equal standing, and each argues that its own function is more important. Because of this rivalry, and because they lack initiative and the ability to work together, their plan to survive and to run the farm collapses into argument, jealousy and confusion. The conflict is between the machines' limited, programmed nature and the need for independent decision-making, which they do not have.

What the ending claims. At the end they meet a human being, a ragged, ignorant and unimpressive man, and they immediately obey him. This shows that:

• machines, however sophisticated, cannot replace man, since they depend on human direction;
• the machines are programmed to serve, not to lead, and they only function when someone gives them purpose;
• the story ironically suggests that human intelligence, imagination and will are unique, and that technology without human guidance is helpless.

An oral presentation succeeds when the following points are considered.

1. Know the audience. Find out their age, background, knowledge and expectations, and adjust the language, examples and level of detail to them.
2. Define the purpose. Decide whether you want to inform, persuade, instruct or entertain.
3. Plan and organise. Have a clear introduction (state the topic and outline), a body with the main points in logical order, and a conclusion that summarises and closes.
4. Prepare thoroughly and rehearse. Practise aloud, time yourself, and prepare for possible questions.
5. Use visual aids wisely. Slides, charts and models should be simple, readable and support, not replace, what is said.
6. Delivery. Speak clearly and at a suitable pace and volume, keep eye contact, use natural gestures and good posture, and avoid reading directly from notes.
7. Check the venue and equipment beforehand.
8. Handle questions and time. Stay within the time limit, and answer questions politely and honestly.
9. Be confident and enthusiastic, and manage nervousness through preparation.

MEMO

To: All Employees From: Chief Executive Officer, Investment Company Date: 15 July 2021 Subject: Following COVID-19 safety protocols in the office

In view of the continuing spread of COVID-19, the company is taking the following precautions to protect the health of all staff. Every employee must follow them with immediate effect.

1. Maintain a distance of at least two metres from colleagues and visitors at all times, including in meetings, lifts and the canteen.
2. Wear a mask covering the nose and mouth while in the office.
3. Sanitise your hands at the entrance and wash them regularly with soap.
4. Have your temperature checked at the gate. Anyone with fever, cough or breathing difficulty must stay home and inform the HR department.
5. Avoid crowding in meetings. Use online platforms wherever possible.
6. Do not share stationery, cups, phones or other personal items, and keep your workstation clean.
7. Visitors will be allowed only by prior appointment.

Your cooperation will keep everyone safe and the business running. Please contact the HR department if you have any questions.

LUMBINI: THE BIRTHPLACE OF LORD BUDDHA

Where peace began.

Why visit Lumbini? Lumbini, in the Terai of southern Nepal, is the birthplace of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, born here in 623 BC. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and is visited by pilgrims and travellers from around the world.

Main attractions

• Maya Devi Temple: marks the exact spot of the Buddha's birth, with ancient brick foundations and the marker stone.
• Ashoka Pillar: erected in 249 BC by Emperor Ashoka, with an inscription recording the birthplace.
• Puskarni Pond: the sacred pond where Queen Maya Devi bathed before the birth.
• Eternal Peace Flame: burning in the Lumbini Garden.
• Monastic Zone: the east zone holds Theravada monasteries and the west zone holds Mahayana and Vajrayana ones, built by countries such as China, Japan, Thailand, Myanmar, Germany and France, each with its own architecture.
• World Peace Pagoda and Lumbini Museum with relics and manuscripts.

Special features Quiet gardens, meditation centres, a canal-lined sacred garden, and a peaceful atmosphere for reflection.

Visitor information Best season: October to March. Nearest airports: Gautam Buddha Airport (Bhairahawa); Lumbini is also connected by road from Kathmandu.

Come to Lumbini and walk where the Light of Asia was born.

J. G. Ballard's "Billennium" is set in a future in which the world population has become so large that every person is allowed only a tiny living space. It raises several issues of overpopulation.

1. Shortage of living space. Each person is allowed only 4 square metres (a tiny cell), and Ward and Rossiter live in crowded cubicles, in buildings divided into small rooms.
2. Loss of privacy. People live pressed together, and they lose individuality and personal freedom. Even when Ward finds a hidden room he must share it, and finally it is crowded again.
3. Crowded streets and public places. Streets and corridors are packed, and movement is difficult, since the only free space is that left by moving crowds.
4. Social and psychological effects. People become anxious and selfish, they cannot escape from others, and are jealous of anyone with extra space. Human relationships suffer.
5. Strict regulation. The government rations space and rules daily life, and people live under laws against exceeding the allowed area.
6. Loss of values. Space becomes the most valued possession, replacing money, which shows how overpopulation changes the basic values of society.

The story is a warning that unchecked population growth will destroy the quality of life.

Flaw in reasoning. A flaw in reasoning (a fallacy) is a mistake in an argument which makes its conclusion unsupported or invalid, even if it seems convincing.

How an argument is flawed. An argument can be flawed when:

• the premises are false, irrelevant or insufficient;
• the conclusion does not follow from the reasons given;
• it rests on unstated, unreasonable assumptions;
• it uses ambiguous words, emotional appeals, or generalises hastily from few cases.

The given reasoning. "A fantastic basketball team could be created if the best player from each of the best teams formed a new club. Basketball would then become an exciting game for fans everywhere."

Flaws:

1. Unstated assumption that a group of the best individual players makes the best team. Teamwork, coordination and playing together matter as much as individual skill.
2. Hasty generalisation / faulty prediction. It does not follow that fans everywhere would find the game more exciting. Taking the best players from all teams would weaken the other teams and reduce competition, which could make the game less exciting.
3. Ignoring other factors, such as player positions, the cost of the players, loyalty to existing clubs and fans.

To: manager@abcfiber.com From: president@abcfiber.com Subject: Staff meeting on the company dress code Date: 20 July 2021

Dear Manager,

As you know, ABC Fiber has followed a flexible dress code that lets employees wear casual clothes provided that they look professional. Over the last few months, however, the policy has led to some problems, and there has been discussion about changing it.

I would like you to call a meeting of all staff to discuss the issue:

• Date: Friday, 30 July 2021
• Time: 2:00 pm
• Venue: Conference Hall, Main Office

The agenda will cover the problems that have arisen, employees' views and suggestions, and a decision on whether to continue, modify or change the present dress code.

Please inform all employees and the department heads, and ask them to prepare their suggestions. Kindly circulate the agenda and confirm the arrangements by Wednesday.

Thank you for your cooperation.

Regards, President ABC Fiber

Both stories deal with war and conflict, but they present very different kinds of war.

H. G. Wells, "The Land Ironclads." The war is a conventional, physical trench war. Two armies face each other across a long line of entrenched positions, and the stalemate is broken when one side introduces land ironclads, armoured, caterpillar-tracked machines carrying riflemen, which cross the trenches at night and capture the enemy. The weapons are rifles, guns and armoured vehicles, the battlefield is a real landscape, and the casualties are physical deaths and captured soldiers. Wells shows the advantage of technological innovation, and also criticises the enemy's complacency and the contempt of the "civilian" for the new invention. The war ends in a quick, decisive victory.

William Gibson, "Burning Chrome." The war is a battle of computer hacking in cyberspace. Two hackers, Bobby Quine and Automatic Jack, use a computer program, a virus, to break through the ICE (intrusion countermeasures electronics) of a powerful criminal named Chrome, and drain her bank accounts. The weapons are keyboards, software and data, and the battlefield is the "matrix", a virtual space. The risk is financial and personal, and there is little direct killing. The motive is revenge and money, and also the emotional involvement with Rikki.

Similarities. Both stories use advanced technology as the key to victory, show an underdog or new technique overcoming a strong defence (trenches, ICE), and warn about how technology changes conflict.

Differences.

• Wells shows large-scale, public warfare between armies for a nation; Gibson shows a private, small-scale conflict between individuals.
• Physical force and machines versus information and code.
• Visible, tangible destruction versus invisible, virtual damage.
• The war in Wells is a nation's defeat; in Gibson the victory is personal profit, and a moral cost comes from betraying the criminal and from losing love.

Thus Wells foresees mechanised warfare, and Gibson imagines the information war of the digital age.

REPORT ON THE POPULARITY OF FAST FOOD RESTAURANTS IN CITIES

To: The Director, Urban Consumer Research Unit From: Research Officer Date: 1 August 2021

1. Introduction This report examines why fast food restaurants have become so popular in the cities in recent years. It is based on observation, interviews with customers and owners, and reading of published material.

2. Findings

2.1 Growth. The number of fast food outlets (burger, pizza, momo, fried chicken and sandwich shops) has grown rapidly, and international chains and local brands now operate in most busy areas.

2.2 Reasons for popularity

• Speed and convenience: food is served quickly, suiting busy workers and students.
• Affordability: prices are moderate, with combo offers and discounts.
• Changing lifestyle: more working people, nuclear families and long working hours leave less time to cook.
• Youth culture and social status: young people like to meet and socialise in such places.
• Taste and variety: a wide choice, with consistent taste.
• Home delivery and online apps have made ordering easier.
• Advertising and media influence.

2.3 Concerns. Fast food is often high in fat, sugar and salt, and increases the risk of obesity, heart disease and diabetes. There are also problems of packaging waste and hygiene.

3. Conclusion Fast food restaurants are popular because they meet the needs of an urban, busy and young population for speed, price and convenience.

4. Recommendations

• Restaurants should offer healthier menu options and maintain hygiene.
• Schools and the media should promote healthy eating habits.
• Local authorities should monitor food quality and waste.

Impact and Challenges of the COVID-19 Pandemic and the Role of Information Technology on Education

The COVID-19 pandemic has been one of the greatest disruptions in modern history, and education has been among the sectors hit hardest. Schools and colleges around the world closed their doors to stop the spread of the virus, and in this crisis information technology became the lifeline of education. This essay argues that although the pandemic caused serious damage and exposed deep inequalities, information technology made learning possible and will leave a lasting change in education.

The first impact of the pandemic was the closing of classrooms and the interruption of learning for millions of students. Examinations were postponed, academic calendars were disrupted, and students lost the social and practical side of education such as laboratories, sports and group work. Many also suffered stress and isolation, and in some families the loss of income forced children to leave study altogether.

Information technology provided the main solution. Teachers moved their classes to Zoom, Google Meet and Microsoft Teams, and used learning management systems, e-books, recorded lectures, television and radio to reach students. Online assessments and digital libraries kept the system functioning, and the pandemic accelerated digital skills among teachers and students that might otherwise have taken years to develop.

However, online education brought serious challenges. In countries like Nepal, many students, especially in rural areas, lacked computers, smartphones, electricity or reliable internet, so the digital divide left poorer students behind. Teachers needed training, online classes reduced interaction and concentration, cheating in online examinations was difficult to control, and long screen time harmed health.

In conclusion, COVID-19 harmed education through lost learning time and unequal access, but it also forced a necessary leap into the digital age. The best path forward is blended learning, supported by investment in infrastructure, affordable internet and teacher training, so that technology benefits every learner and not only the privileged.

Sentence: "If cigarette advertising were banned, cigarette manufacturers would save the money they would otherwise have spent on advertising."

Basic reason: Cigarette manufacturers spend money on advertising, and a ban on advertising would stop that spending.

Intermediate conclusion: A ban on cigarette advertising would save manufacturers money.

Main conclusion: Therefore, banning cigarette advertising would not harm the manufacturers financially (it would be to their benefit, and so they should not object to the ban).

Alternative (effective meetings). As a member, I would suggest the following measures to make a meeting effective:

1. Read the agenda in advance and come prepared with the needed information.
2. Be punctual, and keep to the time limit.
3. Keep to the topic and avoid irrelevant discussion.
4. Listen carefully without interrupting, and speak briefly and clearly.
5. Respect other people's opinions and take part constructively.
6. Support the chairperson in keeping order, and help the group reach decisions.
7. Make notes of the decisions and take responsibility for the actions assigned, which are recorded in the minutes.

REPORT ON GUESTS' COMMENTS, SYNERGY HOTEL

To: Mr. Sushil Kumar Golyan, Manager, Synergy Hotel, Sharma Path, Birgunj From: Assistant Date: 1 August 2021 Subject: Guests' comments made on checking out last month

1. Introduction This report summarises the comments made by guests when signing out last month, grouped under general opinion, staff, restaurant, facilities and maintenance.

2. Findings

Overall impression (positive). Guests were generally very satisfied. They described it as "a well run hotel", "the best hotel in Birgunj city", very good value, and several said they had a splendid holiday and would definitely come back.

Staff (positive). Guests found the staff very helpful, polite and friendly. The gardens were also praised as beautiful.

Restaurant (negative). The most frequent complaint concerned slow service in the restaurant. Three guests complained that there was a wait of half an hour between courses, and that service at meal times is poor and slow. The food itself was praised as lovely.

Facilities (negative). One guest said there were not enough satellite channels, and no movie channels.

Maintenance (negative). A broken light in one room took three days to repair.

3. Conclusion The hotel is well regarded, with excellent staff, food and value. The main weak point is slow restaurant service, with minor points regarding TV channels and repairs.

4. Recommendations

1. Review restaurant staffing and kitchen procedures to speed up service at meal times.
2. Consider adding satellite and movie channels.
3. Introduce a faster system for reporting and repairing faults in rooms.

Checklist for compiling a report

1. Define the purpose and the terms of reference.
2. Identify the readers and their needs.
3. Collect and verify data (from documents, surveys, interviews, observation).
4. Organise and analyse the information.
5. Choose the structure and format (title page, contents, summary, introduction, findings, conclusion, recommendations, appendices).
6. Write the first draft in clear, objective language.
7. Use tables, graphs and headings to support the text.
8. Revise, edit and proofread for accuracy, grammar and consistency.
9. Check references and acknowledge sources.
10. Present the final report, correctly formatted and on time.

Two of them explained

• Collect and verify data. The report depends on facts, so the writer gathers information from reliable sources through questionnaires, interviews, records or observation, and checks that it is accurate, relevant and up to date. Unverified or biased data makes the report unreliable.
• Revise, edit and proofread. After the first draft, the writer checks the content, organisation, language and facts. Errors in spelling, grammar, figures and formatting are corrected, and unnecessary material is deleted, so that the final report is clear, concise and professional.

(a) "mention about" is wrong, since mention is a transitive verb. Correct: When you see Melanie later, please don't mention her hair.

(b) "me myself" is a redundant double pronoun. Correct: Please give Linda or me a call if you have any questions.

(c) "reiterate again" is a repetition (reiterate means to say again). Correct: I want to reiterate that this behaviour will not be tolerated.

(d) "The said invoice" is outdated legalistic jargon, and "overdue for payment" is wordy. Correct: The invoice is two months overdue.

(e) "effected" (to bring about) is the wrong word; affected (influenced) is needed. Correct: Has your job been affected by the retrenchments?

(f) "plan Friday night" is not parallel with "at the store"; the intended idea is a time or place. Correct: What time do you want to meet: at the store or at the plan on Friday night? More naturally, Where do you want to meet: at the store or at the planned venue on Friday night?

(g) "12.00 am" is ambiguous, since it can mean midnight. Correct: The meeting has been fixed for 12.00 noon (or 12.00 pm).

(a) Gitta probably has flu. She has a high temperature and aching muscles, which are symptoms of flu, and flu is sweeping through the school.

(b) The daffodils will probably come into flower late this year, since the winter has been severe.

(c) Jane must have driven faster than Jim (or Jim's journey was slower, perhaps because he took a longer route or was delayed by traffic or a stop), since they left at the same time and both travelled by car.

Flaws in arguments. A flaw is an error in reasoning that weakens an argument, so that the conclusion does not properly follow from the reasons. Flawed arguments may look convincing but cannot be relied on.

Major flaws

1. Hasty (sweeping) generalisation
2. Ad hominem (attacking the person rather than the argument)
3. Begging the question (circular reasoning)
4. False cause (post hoc)
5. Either/or (false dilemma)
6. Appeal to popularity, emotion or authority
7. Straw man
8. Slippery slope
9. Ambiguity and irrelevant reasons

Explanation of one: hasty generalisation. This flaw draws a general conclusion from too few or unrepresentative examples.

Example: "I met two rude shopkeepers in Pokhara, so all the shopkeepers in Pokhara are rude." Two cases cannot support a conclusion about all shopkeepers. A sound argument would need a large, representative sample.

Review of "Billennium" by J. G. Ballard

Plot. The story is set in a future overcrowded world in which each person is allowed a tiny living space of about four square metres. Ward, the main character, lives in a cubicle in a crowded building. He and his friend Rossiter discover a hidden, spacious room behind a wall in his cubicle. At first they keep it secret and enjoy the extra space, then they share it with others, and eventually, when more people crowd in, the secret room too is overwhelmed. The story ends ironically, with Ward and Rossiter retreating from the large room to prefer the small, familiar cells, having grown used to confinement.

Characters. Ward and Rossiter are ordinary people shaped by their environment. Their greed for space and the way they hide their discovery, then give in to pressure, make them realistic. Other characters, such as the crowds and relatives, serve to show how the society behaves.

Technological imagination. Ballard does not stress machines. His imagination is social, showing how overpopulation leads to rationing of space, vertical living and loss of privacy. The world appears believable, and the story is a warning and a social satire.

Evaluation. With its simple plot, strong irony and claustrophobic atmosphere, "Billennium" is a thought-provoking story, relevant to concerns about population growth.

Who Can Replace a Man? (Brian Aldiss) as science fiction

Plot. Humans have apparently gone, and the farm machines (the Field Minder, the Radio-Missile, the Tractor, the Gardener and others) remain. They have no master, and their limited intelligence prevents them from cooperating. When the Field Minder tries to organise them, they quarrel over rank. At the end they meet a ragged, ignorant man, and promptly obey him.

Characters. The machines are personified. Each has a particular function and limited intelligence, and a jealous, proud or stubborn personality. The Field Minder is the most reasonable and ambitious, others are rigid and obedient. The human at the end is a weak figure, unintelligent but still the master.

Theme. Machines cannot replace human beings. Intelligence, creativity and initiative cannot be programmed so easily. The story also reflects on hierarchy, dependence and the irony of man's creations.

As science fiction. It imagines a future society in which advanced machines act independently, and uses this setting to explore the relation between humans and technology. It is soft science fiction, concentrating on its social and philosophical ideas more than technical detail.

Comparison with The Metal Man (Jack Williamson)

• Similarity: both are about the relationship of man and technology or science, and are set in an imagined future or a strange scientific world. Both deal with the limits of human knowledge.
• Difference: in "Who Can Replace a Man?" the machines are the main characters and the tone is ironic and satirical, with an ending showing that humans remain supreme. In "The Metal Man" the focus is on a discovered metal-bodied being, a mystery from nature, and on the narrator's scientific curiosity. Nature, not machines, is the central power, and the metal man is shown to survive and perish through natural processes.
• Theme: Aldiss warns about dependence and arrogance concerning machines; Williamson reflects on nature's power over life and death.

NOTICE

Kathmandu Fashions Ganesh Man Street, Thamel, Kathmandu

To: All Staff Date: 1 August Subject: Closure of the staff car park, 8 to 10 August

Please note that urgent repair work is being carried out on the staff car park next week. The car park will therefore be closed for three days, from 8 to 10 August.

During this time:

• Staff who drive to work may use the customers' car park, but space there is limited.
• You are kindly asked not to bring your car on these three days if possible. Please use the bus or make other transport arrangements to reach the shop.
• If you do need to drive, please share lifts with colleagues so that fewer cars use the customers' car park.

We apologise for the inconvenience and thank you for your cooperation.

Mr. David Gupta Manager

Electric Vehicles in Nepal: Advantages and Challenges

In recent years, electric vehicles (EVs), both two-wheelers and four-wheelers, have become increasingly visible on Nepal's roads. Government incentives, rising fuel prices and growing concern about pollution have encouraged their use. This essay examines the advantages and the challenges of EVs, and argues that, on balance, electric vehicles are a good thing for Nepal if the challenges are managed.

The advantages are significant. First, Nepal imports all of its petroleum, so each EV reduces the import bill and the loss of foreign currency, while the country has surplus hydropower in the wet season. Second, running costs are low: electricity costs far less per kilometre than petrol or diesel, and EVs need less maintenance because they have fewer moving parts. Third, EVs produce no tailpipe emissions, which helps reduce air pollution in cities such as Kathmandu. Fourth, the government has offered lower customs duty and tax compared with petrol vehicles, which makes the running cost more attractive.

However, there are real challenges. The purchase price of EVs is still high, especially for four-wheelers, and many families cannot afford them even with tax benefits. Taxes may change with government policy, causing uncertainty. Charging stations are few, and a lengthy charging time is inconvenient for long trips, particularly on hilly roads where battery backup falls quickly. Batteries are expensive to replace and their lifespan declines over time, and there are concerns about battery disposal and the availability of repair services. Charging may also strain the electricity grid during peak hours.

On the question of prices, the initial price is a drawback but the lower running cost makes up for it over a few years. On taxes, the present incentives make EVs competitive, provided that the policy remains stable. On battery backup and durability, a range of 100 to 400 km is enough for city use, though not yet ideal for long hill routes.

In conclusion, although high initial cost, limited charging infrastructure and battery concerns remain, the benefits in saving foreign currency, lower running cost and a cleaner environment make electric vehicles a good thing for Nepal. With more charging stations, stable policy and local battery recycling, their use should continue to grow.

In Jack Williamson's "The Metal Man," nature is shown as both a survivor and a killer.

Nature as survivor. A man-shaped figure of metal is discovered, and it turns out that the human being became metal through a natural process in which minerals slowly replaced the organic material, so that his form has survived for centuries. Nature preserves life's shape, and the metal man remains as a lasting record of the past. In this sense, nature is a preserver which keeps a being alive in another form long after its time.

Nature as killer. The same natural process that preserved him killed him. Chemicals and natural forces transformed a living man into metal, so his life was ended by nature itself. When the metal man is exposed to the human world, he is again destroyed by natural chemical action (and by the ignorance of those who study him). The story thus shows that nature's power is both creative and destructive, and that human science cannot fully control it.

Hence the statement is justified: nature spares the form but takes the life, and what saves also destroys.

Science fiction is a genre of fiction that imagines the effects of real or possible science and technology on human beings and society. It explores themes such as space travel, time travel, robots, artificial intelligence, alien life, advanced weapons and future societies, usually asking "what if?" about the future or about alternate worlds.

Differences between hard and soft science fiction

The audience is the most important consideration in any presentation, since the purpose of a presentation is to communicate with them.

1. Content selection. Knowing the audience's background, knowledge and interests tells the speaker what to include, how much detail to give, and what to leave out.
2. Language and tone. Technical terms can be used for experts, while simple language and explanations are needed for beginners. The tone can be formal or informal as appropriate.
3. Engagement. Examples, humour and visuals that match the audience's interests keep their attention and make the message memorable.
4. Achieving the purpose. To inform, persuade or motivate, the speaker must understand the audience's needs, attitudes and expectations, and anticipate their questions and objections.
5. Cultural sensitivity. Knowing their culture, age and size prevents offence and misunderstanding.
6. Feedback. Observing the audience's reaction allows the speaker to adjust pace and content during the presentation.

A presentation that ignores its audience fails even when the content is good.

i. I will speak about Microsoft Excel.

ii. This software could cost about 10,000 dollars. (or: The software could cost around $10,000.)

iii. The new video game will be launched soon.

iv. I hope she accepts my proposal.

v. Information technology is used in all fields today. (or: Information technology is now used everywhere.)

Definition. Classified ads are short, inexpensive advertisements printed in newspapers, magazines or websites under headings (classifications) such as jobs, property, vehicles and services. They are usually brief and text-based, give essential details such as description, price and contact, and are placed by individuals and businesses to reach a targeted audience.

Products and services advertised

• Employment: job vacancies, and people seeking work.
• Real estate: houses, flats, land and rooms for sale or rent.
• Vehicles: cars, motorbikes, bicycles for sale.
• Electronics and household goods: computers, mobile phones, furniture and appliances, often second-hand.
• Education: tuition, courses and training classes.
• Services: repair, cleaning, catering, transport, travel, legal and medical services.
• Personal: matrimonial, lost and found, notices of name changes and public notices.
• Business: business opportunities, tenders and items for sale or exchange.

The Use of Animals in Medical Research

The use of animals in medical research is justified, as long as it is done humanely and only where there is no alternative.

Reasons in favour

1. Animals such as mice, rats and monkeys share biological similarities with humans, so experiments on them give useful information on how a disease or a drug affects a living body, which a laboratory dish cannot show.
2. Many medical advances, including vaccines for polio and smallpox, insulin for diabetes, and antibiotics, were developed with animal testing, and have saved millions of lives.
3. It is safer to test new drugs and surgery on animals first than to risk human lives.

Reasons against Animals can feel pain, and some people argue that causing them suffering is morally wrong. Results do not always apply to humans, and alternatives such as computer models and cell cultures exist.

Conclusion. Since human lives have been saved and the benefits are great, animal research is acceptable if strict rules are followed to reduce suffering, use fewer animals, and replace animals with alternatives wherever possible.

An assumption is an unstated belief or idea that the speaker takes for granted, and which an argument needs to be accepted as true before its conclusion can follow from the reasons. It is not stated, and it fills the gap between the reason and the conclusion. If the assumption is false, the argument is weak.

Example 1. "The roads are wet, so it must have rained last night." Assumption: Nothing else (such as a water tanker or a burst pipe) could have made the roads wet.

Example 2. "Ramesh is a computer engineer, so he can fix my laptop." Assumption: All computer engineers know how to repair laptops.

Himalayan Computers Pvt. Ltd. New Road, Kathmandu, Nepal Tel: +977-1-4xxxxxx

15 July 2021

The Director, International Sales Apple Inc., Headquarters One Apple Park Way Cupertino, California, USA

Subject: Request to become an authorised distributor of Apple laptops in Nepal

Dear Sir or Madam,

I am writing to express the interest of Himalayan Computers Pvt. Ltd. in distributing the latest Apple laptops in Nepal.

We are an established computer dealer in Kathmandu, and have been selling and servicing computers, laptops and accessories for more than ten years. We have a showroom in New Road, a trained technical team, and a network of customers including individuals, schools, colleges, and companies. We also supply other leading brands, and are well known for our after-sales service.

Apple products are in high demand in Nepal, particularly among students, professionals and designers, but at present they are available only through limited and unofficial channels. This leaves customers without proper warranty or service support. We believe that, as an authorised distributor, we could grow Apple's market in Nepal, provide genuine products with warranty and offer trained technical support.

We would be grateful if you would let us know:

1. the terms and conditions for becoming an authorised distributor;
2. prices, discounts and the minimum order quantity;
3. warranty, service and training arrangements; and
4. the procedure for sending a first order.

We can provide our company registration, financial statements and references on request, and will be glad to discuss this in person or online at your convenience.

We look forward to your favourable reply and to a long and profitable partnership.

Yours faithfully,

Sanjay Shrestha Managing Director Himalayan Computers Pvt. Ltd.

In "Billennium," J. G. Ballard imagines a world where space is rationed, and people live in tiny cells. Reading the story, one can imagine how Kathmandu Valley, already crowded and polluted, might try to solve its problems of overcrowding in the future.

First, the people would be forced to use space more efficiently. As in the story, where cubicles of four square metres were allotted to each person and rooms were divided by partitions, the Valley might see ever smaller apartments and multi-storey buildings, with homes divided into units with shared facilities. Land would be used vertically, with tall apartment blocks and underground structures, since the open land of the Valley is limited.

Second, the government would have to regulate space and population. Laws might limit the size of houses, ration land, and control construction and migration into the Valley. Population control programmes and family planning would be promoted, and people could be encouraged to settle in other regions.

Third, decentralisation would be the real answer. If services, jobs, universities, hospitals and industries were developed in other cities such as Pokhara, Biratnagar and Butwal, fewer people would migrate to Kathmandu. Better transport and digital connectivity would let people work and study from remote places.

Fourth, shared and public facilities such as public transport, community parks, rooftop gardens and shared work spaces would replace private ones. Technology could be used for efficient use of resources.

However, the story also warns that people adapt to confinement and become used to it. If the Valley only learns to squeeze people in, without tackling the cause, overpopulation, the quality of life will decline, privacy will vanish, and tension will increase, as happened to Ward and Rossiter. The real solution is therefore a combination of planning, population control, decentralised development and wise use of space, before the situation reaches the extreme of Ballard's story.

Oral communication is the exchange of information, ideas and feelings through spoken words, face to face or through technology. It includes conversations, interviews, meetings, presentations, speeches, telephone calls and discussions. It is immediate, allows instant feedback, and uses voice, tone, pitch and body language along with words.

How technology makes oral communication effective

1. Overcomes distance: telephone, video calls and web conferencing allow people anywhere to talk in real time.
2. Saves time and cost: virtual meetings reduce travel.
3. Improves clarity: microphones, loudspeakers and public-address systems let large audiences hear well.
4. Supports visual aids: slides, projectors, screen sharing and animation make presentations clearer and more interesting.
5. Allows recording and playback: meetings and lectures can be recorded, stored and reviewed, and transcribed automatically.
6. Enables collaboration: shared documents, chat and breakout rooms let participants work together.
7. Practice and feedback: recording and speech-analysis tools help speakers improve.

Kinds (modules) of oral communication

• Face-to-face conversation and interviews: direct personal exchange, including job interviews.
• Telephone and voice calls: quick, personal communication, voice mail.
• Video conferencing (Zoom, Google Meet, Microsoft Teams): meetings, classes and interviews online, with both sound and picture.
• Meetings and discussions: group decision-making, in person or virtual.
• Presentations and speeches: addressing an audience with slides and other aids.
• Webinars, podcasts and radio or television broadcasts: one-to-many oral communication through media.
• Voice messages and voice assistants: spoken messages sent via apps.

With correct choice of module, clear speech and good use of technology, oral communication becomes fast, clear and effective.