Ellipsis is the omission of words that are understood from the context, so that a sentence is shorter but still clear. For example: "Ram likes tea and Sita [likes] coffee." and "(Are you) Coming with us?"

• BrE: "She has learnt the poem and spelt every word correctly." / AmE: "She has learned the poem and spelled every word correctly."
• BrE: "He got the letter yesterday." (past participle in "He has got") / AmE: "He has gotten the letter."

Formal version: "What an unreasonable idea! She will never be able to escape the consequences of it."

(The informal sentence "She'll ever get away with it" is meant as a negative; the formal form expands the contraction and states it clearly.)

• Count: "I ordered two coffees for the guests." Mass: "I like coffee in the morning."
• Count: "There are many lights in the hall." Mass: "Light travels faster than sound."

1. "I see your point, but I wonder if we should also consider the cost involved."
2. "That is an interesting idea; however, I am not sure I fully agree, because it may take too much time."

Common interjections: oh, ah, wow, alas, hurray, oops, ouch, hey, bravo, ugh, well, hush, eh.

Sentences:

• Wow! What a beautiful view of the Himalayas.
• Alas! The old man died last night.

Means is a general word for a method or way of achieving something (it takes a singular or plural verb according to sense), e.g. "Education is the means to success." Instrument is a tool, device or implement used for a particular task, e.g. "A thermometer is an instrument for measuring temperature."

Temporary habit describes an activity that is repeated over a limited, temporary period (it is expected to change) and uses the present progressive. Present habit describes a permanent or long-standing repeated activity and uses the simple present.

• Temporary habit: He is smoking too much these days. (only for the present period)
• Present habit: He smokes a pipe. (a regular, lasting habit)

End-focus is the principle that new or important information is placed at the end of the clause, where it receives the main stress. Example: She spoke to the manager about her promotion., or with postponement, It surprised everyone that he resigned.

Contrastive focus places special stress on an item (usually by intonation or a cleft) to contrast it with another. Example: I said John broke the window, not Jim. or It was John who broke the window (not Jim).

The difference lies in the noun subject: crimes is a count noun (plural), violence is a mass (non-count) noun.

• All crimes are avoidable. The plural count noun takes a plural verb (are) and refers to every individual crime of the kind.
• All violence is avoidable. The mass noun takes a singular verb (is) and refers to violence as an undivided substance or concept; it has no plural and cannot take a/an or a number.

Economic Impacts of Information Revolution

The information revolution has transformed the structure of the world economy. Information and knowledge have become primary productive resources, so that industries such as software, telecommunications, e-commerce, online banking and outsourcing now generate large shares of income and employment. Automation and digital networks raise productivity, reduce transaction costs, widen markets and let small firms compete globally. Countries such as Nepal also gain through remittance transfers, digital payments, freelancing and IT-enabled services.

At the same time, the revolution has changed the nature of work. Routine jobs are being replaced by machines, while demand grows for skilled workers in data, programming and digital services, which can increase unemployment among the unskilled and widen the gap between those with and without access to technology. Overall, the information revolution creates new wealth and opportunities, but its benefits depend on investment in education, infrastructure and digital skills.

Scope of Information Technology in Nepal

Introduction

Information Technology (IT) means the use of computers, software, networks and telecommunications to create, store, process and exchange information. In the 21st century IT has become a driving force of development. For Nepal, a small, mountainous and landlocked country where physical transport is difficult and costly, IT offers a way to reach distant people, markets and services, so its scope is wide and growing.

Education

IT can bring quality education to remote areas through e-learning, online classes, digital libraries and educational software. Students now apply for admission, access results, and study through the internet. Distance learning reduces the gap between urban and rural schools, and computer education prepares young people for the job market.

Business, Banking and Commerce

Online banking, mobile wallets and digital payment systems have spread rapidly. E-commerce and online marketing allow small producers of handicrafts, tea, coffee and herbal goods to reach buyers abroad. IT also improves record keeping, inventory and customer service in firms.

Government and Governance

E-governance can make services faster, cheaper and more transparent: online tax filing, citizen services, digital land records, e-tendering and the national ID. Computerised systems reduce corruption and paperwork and bring government closer to citizens.

Tourism, Health and Agriculture

Tourism, Nepal's major industry, depends on online promotion, hotel and flight booking, and websites. Telemedicine and electronic health records can serve remote villages. Farmers can obtain market prices, weather information and advice by mobile phone.

Employment and Outsourcing

IT creates jobs for programmers, web designers, network engineers and data entry operators. Software development, business process outsourcing and freelancing for foreign clients earn foreign currency and reduce the need for labour migration. Start-ups are emerging in fintech, ride sharing and e-commerce.

Communication and Media

Mobile phones, social media and broadband have revolutionised communication; they inform the public, connect Nepalis abroad with their families and strengthen democratic participation.

Challenges

Progress is limited by weak infrastructure, unreliable electricity, high internet cost in remote areas, a digital divide, shortage of skilled manpower, cybercrime and lack of a strong legal framework and policy implementation.

Conclusion

The scope of IT in Nepal is very wide, covering education, governance, business, tourism, health, agriculture and employment. With proper policy, investment in infrastructure, and training of skilled people, IT can speed up economic growth and social development and help Nepal take its place in the global knowledge economy.

• (a) Furniture: a piece of furniture. He bought a piece of furniture for the office.
• (b) Grass: a blade of grass. A blade of grass was stuck to his shoe.
• (c) Chocolate: a bar (or piece) of chocolate. She ate a bar of chocolate.
• (d) Dust: a speck (or cloud) of dust. A speck of dust got into my eye.
• (e) Rubbish: a piece (or heap) of rubbish. Do not leave a piece of rubbish on the road.
• (f) Hair: a strand of hair. I found a strand of hair on my collar.
• (g) Ice: a cube (or block) of ice. Put a cube of ice in the juice.
• (h) Paper: a sheet of paper. Give me a sheet of paper.
• (i) Rope: a length (or coil) of rope. They tied the boat with a length of rope.
• (j) Wheat: a grain of wheat. A single grain of wheat can grow into a plant.

(a) He resigned because he had quarrelled with the chairman.

(b) Work harder; then you will pass your test.

(c) I paid my debts fully, so I could at least begin to lead a normal life.

(d) The pump is broken; evidently, there is a blockage in one of the pipes.

(e) Follow the instructions, as this will make the machines durable.

(f) No progress had been made for even two years, so the project was officially terminated.

(g) The team didn't really expect to win, but they were nevertheless disappointed at their heavy defeat.

(h) Disasters often make dramatic headlines; however, there is some good news here.

(i) Drink up your coffee before it gets cold.

(j) He not only gave everyone gifts but also invited them to a dinner party.

a. Amount word (mass, small quantity): There is little water left in the jug. (also a little sugar)

b. Present event: Look! The boy is crossing the road. (or the commentary Ram passes the ball to Hari.)

c. Putative should: It is strange that he should behave like that.

d. Reported command: The teacher told the students to submit their assignments the next day.

e. Role, standard and point of view: As a teacher, she is very strict (role); for a beginner, he speaks English well (standard); from the farmer's point of view, the rain is a blessing (point of view).

f. Listing and adding: First, we need a budget; second, a team; and in addition, a clear plan.

g. Fact, hypothesis and neutrality: Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius (fact); if she were here, she would help us (hypothesis); whether he will come or not, we shall begin on time (neutrality).

h. Condition + contrast: Even if it rains, we shall go for the picnic.

i. Insistence, intention, wish and willingness: He insists on paying the bill (insistence); I am going to study medicine (intention); I wish I could fly (wish); I will help you if you ask (willingness).

j. Omission in verbless clauses: When in Kathmandu, visit Pashupatinath. (When you are omitted)

Ellipsis is the omission of words that are grammatically necessary but can be understood from the context, so that repetition is avoided.

Example: Ram went to Pokhara and Sita [went] to Chitwan. or, in reply, Are you coming? ~ Yes, I am [coming].

British and American English differ in the past forms of some irregular verbs.

• BrE: He learnt the poem by heart. / The fire burnt all night.
• AmE: He learned the poem by heart. / The fire burned all night.

(Similarly BrE got/have got, AmE gotten; BrE spelt, AmE spelled.)

Tentative (more polite, less direct) language uses modal verbs, past forms or hedges:

1. I was wondering if you could lend me your pen. (instead of Lend me your pen.)
2. Would you mind closing the window? / It might be better to wait a little.

• With a count noun: There are a few books on the table. (or few)
• With a mass noun: There is a little milk in the cup. (or little)

The content words carry the stress: society, women, depend, men. The function words in, our, on are unstressed.

In our 'society 'women de'pend on 'men.

That is: In our 'society 'women de'pend on 'men. (the stress mark comes before the stressed syllable; in depend the stress falls on the second syllable)

Event use. Felt ... touch describes a single, complete, momentary happening (the woman's touch on my back occurred as one event, with the bare infinitive touch indicating the whole action). The state use would be I felt the table was rough (a lasting condition or opinion).

A multiple Wh-question has more than one Wh-word:

Who said what to whom? or Who bought what and where?

Had I not seen it with my own eyes, I would not have believed it.

The conditional if is dropped and the operator had is placed before the subject I (subject-operator inversion).

Both cleft sentences give special focus to one part of the sentence by dividing it into two clauses.

It-cleft has the pattern It + be + focused element + that/who-clause. The focus comes in the middle.

• It was Hari who broke the window.

Wh-cleft (pseudo-cleft) has the pattern Wh-clause + be + focused element. The focus comes at the end.

• What Hari broke was the window.

Thus the It-cleft can focus on nearly any element (subject, object, adverbial), while the Wh-cleft mainly focuses on the object/complement or on a predicate (What he did was break the window) and puts it in end-focus position.

• Postponement of a subject clause: It is obvious that he is guilty. (instead of That he is guilty is obvious.)
• Postponement of an indirect object: She gave a beautiful present to her sister. (instead of She gave her sister a beautiful present.)

Formal and informal English are two styles (registers) of the same language, used according to the situation, topic and the relationship between speaker and listener.

Examples:

• Formal: I would be grateful if you could inform me of the date of the meeting.
• Informal: Can you tell me when the meeting is?

A good user of English chooses the style appropriate to the context.

The Impacts of Information Technology in the Educational Sector

Introduction

Information Technology (IT) has changed the way knowledge is produced, stored, shared and learned. Computers, the internet, multimedia and mobile devices have entered classrooms and homes alike, affecting teachers, students, administrators and the whole education system. Like any technology, its effects are both positive and negative.

Positive Impacts

Access to information. The internet, e-books and digital libraries give students and teachers instant access to a vast amount of up-to-date material, so learning is no longer limited to the textbook.

Distance and online learning. Virtual classrooms, video lectures and learning platforms let people study from remote villages or while working. This became especially important during the COVID-19 lockdowns.

Better teaching and learning. Presentations, animations, simulations and educational software make difficult ideas easier to understand and increase students' interest and participation. Learners can progress at their own pace.

Administration and management. School and university records, admissions, examination results, attendance and fees can be handled quickly and accurately by computers, saving time and reducing errors.

Research and collaboration. Online journals, databases and communication tools help students and scholars research, share ideas and work with colleagues around the world.

Skills for employment. Computer literacy is now necessary in almost every career, and IT education prepares students for the job market.

Negative Impacts

• Digital divide: poor and rural students may lack devices, electricity and internet access, widening inequality.
• Distraction and misuse: social media and games waste study time; plagiarism and copying from the internet reduce original thinking.
• Health and social effects: long screen time harms eyesight and posture, and reduces face-to-face interaction.
• Cost and dependence: equipment and training are costly, and over-dependence may weaken handwriting, memory and basic skills.
• Quality and security issues: online information may be unreliable, and there are risks of cybercrime and loss of privacy.

Situation in Nepal

Many institutions use online admission, e-results and virtual classes, and the government has programmes for ICT in schools. However, lack of infrastructure, trained teachers and connectivity limits the benefits.

Conclusion

IT has made education more accessible, interactive and efficient, but it cannot replace the teacher or the value of human interaction. With proper planning, investment, teacher training and guidance on responsible use, its advantages can greatly outweigh its disadvantages.

Notation: tone unit boundaries /, nucleus (the stressed syllable carrying the tone) in capitals, \ falling, / rising, V fall-rise. (Other divisions are possible depending on the speaker.)

a. / I heard the \STOry yesterday /

b. / After the VGAME / we had some \TEA /

c. / VOBviously / they expected us to be on \TIME /

d. / He plays \WELL / doesn't /HE /

e. Are you ready for /TEA /

f. / The \BOYS / VHOWever / were unable to \SLEEP /

g. You're leaving /ALready /

h. / The last VAPpeal / to come and VVIsit him / was \NEver de**\LI**vered / (the nucleus falls on the stressed syllable of each tone unit)

i. / \YES / her favourite \PAStime is \SWIMming / (or a single unit: Yes, her favourite pastime is \SWIMming)

j. / \WHERE are they \GOing / (the usual wh-question has a falling tone: Where are they \GOing)

Summary of the tones: statements and wh-questions end with a fall (a, j, f); yes/no questions and echo/surprise questions end with a rise (e, g); the tag in (d) takes a rise (genuine question) after a falling main clause; a fall-rise is used for non-final, "incomplete" units and sentence adverbials (b, c, f, h).

a. They were 'first to a'rrive at the 'entrance. (stressed syllables: first, rrive in arrive, en in entrance)

b. He gasped and asked them to give him water. (or: He gasped that they should give him water.)

c. Surely, is anyone going to defend me? / Isn't someone going to defend me? (rhetorical question: the answer is obviously "no one", expressed as Who is going to defend me?)

d. A man of few words, uncle George declined to express an opinion.

e. So it is. / Yes, it is. (short affirmation, e.g. So is the film.)

Pattern: a(n) [unit] of [mass noun]