आमसञ्चारको परिचय

A model of communication is a simplified picture of how a message travels from a sender to a receiver. Models help us see the parts of communication and how they relate. They are broadly grouped into linear, interactive and transactional models.

1. Aristotle's model (linear, about 300 BC) Aristotle described communication as a speaker, a speech and an audience. The speaker tries to persuade the audience. Example: a leader addressing a public rally to win votes. It has no feedback and no mention of noise.

2. Lasswell's model (1948) Harold Lasswell asked: Who says what, in which channel, to whom, with what effect? It covers sender, message, channel, receiver and effect, and is widely used for mass media analysis. Example: a ministry (who) announces a vaccination campaign (what) on radio (channel) to rural families (whom), and the effect is measured by turnout.

3. Shannon and Weaver's model (1949) This is a technical, linear model with an information source, transmitter, channel, receiver and destination, plus noise that can distort the signal. Example: a telephone call in which a bad line (noise) makes the listener mishear a number.

4. Berlo's SMCR model (1960) David Berlo stressed that communication depends on the Sender, Message, Channel and Receiver, and that the sender and receiver need matching communication skills, attitudes, knowledge and social-cultural background. Example: a teacher who explains a lesson in simple language the students already know.

5. Schramm's models (1954) Wilbur Schramm showed communication as a circular process in which both sides encode, decode and interpret, and share a field of experience. Communication works only where the two fields overlap. Example: a doctor and a patient talking; understanding is better when the doctor uses words the patient knows.

6. Osgood–Schramm circular model Both parties act as sender and receiver in turn, so feedback is continuous. Example: a phone conversation between two friends.

7. Westley and MacLean's model (1957) Adds a gatekeeper (editor or channel) between the event and the public. Example: a newspaper editor decides which of many events become news.

8. Dance's helical model (1967) Communication is a spiral that widens as experience grows, not a closed circle. Example: a child's language grows from simple words to complex ideas through repeated talk.

Conclusion: linear models (Aristotle, Lasswell, Shannon–Weaver, Berlo) show one-way flow, while interactive and transactional models (Schramm, Osgood, Dance) stress feedback and shared meaning. Modern mass communication uses ideas from all of them.

Feedback is the receiver's response to a message that goes back to the sender. It tells the sender whether the message was received, understood and accepted, so communication becomes a two-way, circular process.

Types

• Positive feedback – shows agreement or encouragement (a nod, applause, "yes, I understand").
• Negative feedback – shows confusion or disagreement and calls for correction (a puzzled look, a complaint).
• Immediate (direct) feedback – in face-to-face talk and phone calls.
• Delayed feedback – in mass communication, e.g. letters to the editor, TV ratings, readership surveys, social media comments.

Importance: it lets the sender check understanding, correct mistakes, improve future messages and measure effect. In mass media, feedback is usually delayed and weak, which is why media houses study audience surveys and letters.

Example: a teacher sees puzzled faces and repeats the lesson in simpler words.

Meaning

A barrier in communication is anything that blocks, distorts or weakens the message on its way from the sender to the receiver, so that the message is not understood as intended. It is also called noise or interference. Barriers can arise at any stage: encoding, transmission, decoding or feedback. Removing them is necessary for effective communication.

Types of barriers, with examples

1. Physical (environmental) barriers Noise, distance, poor lighting, faulty microphones or weak network signals. Example: a loud street prevents students from hearing a teacher; a radio signal fades in a hill region.

2. Language barriers Different languages, difficult vocabulary, jargon, dialects or ambiguous words. Example: a health worker using medical terms with villagers who speak only Tharu or Maithili.

3. Semantic barriers The same word has different meanings for different people. Example: "bill" may mean a law or a payment note.

4. Psychological barriers Emotions, fear, stress, prejudice, lack of interest or mistrust. Example: an angry listener refuses to accept advice, or a nervous speaker forgets the message.

5. Cultural and social barriers Differences in customs, beliefs, gestures and status. Example: a gesture polite in one culture is rude in another; a junior fears to speak before a senior.

6. Technical (channel) barriers Failure of the medium such as power cuts, printing mistakes, poor internet. Example: a live TV program interrupted by a power failure.

7. Organizational barriers Too many levels in a hierarchy, rigid rules or poor flow of information. Example: an instruction changes as it passes through many officers.

8. Perceptual and attitude barriers Selective attention, assumptions or stereotypes lead people to hear only what they expect.

9. Information overload and poor timing Too much information or a message sent at the wrong time can be ignored.

Overcoming barriers: use simple, clear language; choose the right channel; reduce noise; seek feedback; understand the audience's culture; and be patient and open-minded.

Conclusion: barriers can reduce a message to confusion, so a good communicator identifies them in advance and plans to avoid them.

Mass communication has several important functions.

1. Information (surveillance) – it informs the public about events, weather, prices and dangers, and watches the environment for threats.
2. Education – it spreads knowledge about health, farming, law, science and rights, through school radio, documentaries and campaigns.
3. Entertainment – films, music, drama, sports and quizzes give recreation.
4. Interpretation (correlation) – it explains and comments on events through editorials and analysis, helping people understand them.
5. Persuasion and public opinion – it influences attitudes and choices, including in politics and advertising.
6. Social cohesion and cultural transmission – it passes on values, language and traditions between generations and unites society.
7. Watchdog/surveillance of power – it exposes corruption and holds government accountable.
8. Mobilisation – it urges people to act, such as in elections, disaster relief or national campaigns.
9. Economic function – advertising connects producers and consumers, and creates jobs.

These functions are often summarised by Lasswell and Wright as surveillance, correlation, cultural transmission and entertainment.

The sender (also called the source, communicator or encoder) is the person, group or organization that starts the communication process by creating a message and sending it to the receiver. Without a sender, there is no communication.

Role and functions

1. Decides the purpose and the idea to be conveyed.
2. Encodes the idea into words, pictures, sounds or symbols.
3. Selects a suitable channel (speech, newspaper, radio, TV, internet).
4. Sends the message to the receiver and looks for feedback.

Qualities of an effective sender: good communication skills, clear knowledge of the subject, understanding of the audience, credibility, a positive attitude and awareness of the social and cultural setting (Berlo's SMCR model).

Examples: a teacher in a classroom; a newspaper reporter; a radio announcer; an organization issuing a press release. In mass communication the sender is usually a media organization or professional team, not a single person.

Sender–Message–Channel–Receiver

SMCR is a linear model of communication that breaks the process into four parts: the Sender (who creates the message), the Message (the content being sent), the Channel (the medium used to carry it), and the Receiver (the person who gets the message). It was developed by David Berlo as an extension of Shannon and Weaver's model.

Noise

In printed media, noise (interference) commonly appears as printing defects such as blurred or smudged text, poor paper quality, or spelling and grammar errors that distort the message between the sender and the receiver.

Types of Communication

Communication is the process of exchanging information, ideas, and feelings between two or more parties through a common medium. It is broadly classified into the following types:

On the basis of number of participants:

1. Intrapersonal communication – communication within oneself.
2. Interpersonal communication – communication between two persons.
3. Group communication – communication among a small number of people.
4. Mass communication – communication with a large, scattered audience through mass media.
5. Organizational communication – communication within and by an organization.

On the basis of medium/channel: 6. Verbal communication – through words, spoken or written. 7. Non-verbal communication – through gestures, facial expressions, body language, etc.

On the basis of direction: 8. Vertical communication – upward and downward within a hierarchy. 9. Horizontal communication – between people of the same level. 10. Diagonal communication – across different levels and departments.

Explanation of Mass Communication (in brief)

Mass communication is the process by which messages are transmitted to a large, heterogeneous and scattered audience through mass media such as newspapers, radio, television, cinema and the internet. In this type of communication, the sender is usually a professional communicator or an organization, the message is public and meant for a wide audience, and the feedback is delayed and indirect. It plays a vital role in informing, educating, entertaining and persuading the public, and in shaping public opinion. For example, a news bulletin broadcast on television reaches millions of viewers at the same time.

The communication process is complete only when a message travels from the sender to the receiver and a response (feedback) returns to the sender. Each element plays a fixed role, and if any link is missing, the process remains incomplete. The process is completed in the following steps:

1. Sender (Source): The sender is the person or organisation that has an idea, information, or feeling to share. The sender is the starting point of communication.

2. Encoding: The sender converts the idea into words, symbols, pictures, or gestures. This conversion of thought into a communicable form is called encoding.

3. Message: The encoded idea becomes the message — the actual content that is transmitted (a speech, a news report, an advertisement, a letter, etc.).

4. Channel (Medium): The message is carried through a channel such as face-to-face talk, telephone, radio, television, newspaper, or the internet. The choice of channel depends on the nature of the message and the receiver.

5. Receiver (Audience): The person or group for whom the message is meant. The receiver receives the message through the channel.

6. Decoding: The receiver interprets and understands the symbols used by the sender. This process of giving meaning to the message is decoding. If decoding matches the sender's intention, communication succeeds.

7. Feedback: The receiver responds — by replying, nodding, commenting, or acting. This response is feedback. Feedback tells the sender whether the message was understood, and it turns one-way transmission into two-way communication.

8. Noise (Barrier): Any disturbance — physical noise, language difficulty, poor network, prejudice — that blocks or distorts the message. Effective communication tries to reduce noise at every stage.

Figure: The Communication Process

                 NOISE / BARRIER
        ┌───────────────────────────────┐
        │                               │
        ▼                               │
 ┌──────────┐   ┌─────────┐   ┌──────────────┐   ┌──────────┐
 │  SENDER  │──▶│ ENCODING│──▶│   MESSAGE    │──▶│ CHANNEL  │
 └──────────┘   └─────────┘   └──────────────┘   └──────────┘
      ▲                                                  │
      │                                                  ▼
      │                                          ┌──────────────┐
      │                                          │   RECEIVER   │
      │                                          └──────────────┘
      │                                                  │
      │                                                  ▼
      │                                          ┌──────────────┐
      │                                          │   DECODING   │
      │                                          └──────────────┘
      │                                                  │
      │              FEEDBACK                            ▼
      └──────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

Conclusion: The process becomes complete only when the receiver's feedback reaches the sender. Thus the cycle runs as Sender → Encoding → Message → Channel → Receiver → Decoding → Feedback → Sender, with noise able to disturb the message at any point.