World history

(b) The United States and the Soviet Union

After the Second World War the USA and the USSR emerged as the two dominant superpowers, each leading a rival bloc (the capitalist West and the communist East), and their rivalry shaped international politics throughout the Cold War.

The First World War (1914–1918) was the result of several long-term and immediate causes building up over decades. Five major causes are explained below.

1. Imperialism and colonial rivalry By the late 19th century, the major European powers—Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, and Austria-Hungary—were competing fiercely for colonies in Africa and Asia. Germany, unified only in 1871, felt it had been left behind in the scramble for colonies and demanded its "place in the sun." This created constant friction, especially between Britain and Germany and between France and Germany over Morocco and other territories. Colonial disputes kept the powers suspicious and hostile toward one another.

2. Militarism and the arms race All the great powers believed that military strength was the key to national security and prestige. Germany began a massive naval building programme to challenge British supremacy at sea, and Britain responded by building even more warships (the Dreadnought race). Army sizes were also increased and conscription was introduced. Military leaders gained great influence over foreign policy, and war came to be seen as a quick and honourable way of settling disputes. This readiness for war made conflict more likely.

3. The system of secret alliances Europe was divided into two hostile camps. The Triple Alliance (1882) linked Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, while the Triple Entente (1907) linked Britain, France, and Russia. These alliances were meant to give security, but they turned a local quarrel into a continental war. Once one member was drawn in, the others were obliged to follow. The alliance system thus spread the fire of a small conflict across the whole of Europe.

4. Extreme nationalism Aggressive nationalism gripped every major power. France wanted to recover Alsace-Lorraine from Germany; Germany was proud of its growing power; Russia claimed to protect all Slav peoples; and Austria-Hungary feared the nationalist ambitions of its subject nationalities. In the Balkans, Serbia, backed by Russia, dreamed of a greater Serbia, while Austria-Hungary opposed it. This intense national pride and hatred made compromise very difficult.

5. The immediate cause: the Sarajevo assassination and the July Crisis On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, was assassinated at Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb linked to the Serbian nationalist group. Austria-Hungary, backed by Germany (the "blank cheque"), sent Serbia an ultimatum and declared war on 28 July 1914. Russia mobilised in support of Serbia, Germany declared war on Russia and France, and Britain entered after Germany invaded Belgium. Thus a single act of assassination, combined with the above long-term causes, triggered the First World War.

The Industrial Revolution, beginning in Britain in the late 18th century and spreading to Europe and North America, transformed society and the economy in far-reaching ways. Its five major impacts are described below.

1. Growth of factory production and capitalism. Production shifted from the home and workshop (cottage industry) to large factories using machines. This increased output enormously and gave rise to industrial capitalism, in which factory owners invested capital, hired wage labour, and produced for profit. The factory system became the base of the modern economy.

2. Rise of urbanisation. People left villages in large numbers to work in factories, and towns and cities grew rapidly around industrial centres. Cities such as Manchester and Birmingham expanded quickly. This created a new urban working class, though it also led to overcrowded slums, poor sanitation, and disease.

3. Changes in the class structure. Society came to be divided mainly into two classes: the capitalist class (bourgeoisie), who owned factories and capital, and the working class (proletariat), who sold their labour for wages. The old feudal landlord class declined in importance. This sharp division later gave rise to trade unions and socialist ideas.

4. Growth of trade, transport, and markets. Mass production created a surplus of goods that needed wider markets. Railways, steamships, and the telegraph linked regions and continents, expanding internal and international trade. Britain became the "workshop of the world," and colonialism supplied raw materials and markets, tying Asia and Africa into the world economy.

5. Social and technological progress. New inventions and scientific methods raised productivity and living standards over time. Education, health care, and communication improved in the long run. However, workers faced long hours, low wages, and unsafe conditions, including the exploitation of women and children, which led to labour movements and factory laws.

In short, the Industrial Revolution made the world economy machine-based, urban, and globally connected, while also creating new social classes and inequalities that shaped modern history.

The Russian Revolution of 1917 was one of the most consequential events of the 20th century. It ended centuries of Tsarist autocracy, created the world's first socialist state, and set the stage for the ideological conflict that shaped global politics for the next seventy years.

Causes of the Revolution

Economic causes. Russia was still a largely feudal, agrarian economy in the early 20th century. Land was concentrated in the hands of nobles and the Church, while the vast majority of peasants lived in poverty. Industrialisation, though rapid after the 1890s, produced miserable working conditions — long hours, low wages, and no trade unions. Russia's involvement in the First World War (1914–1918) worsened matters: millions of soldiers died, food and fuel supplies to the cities collapsed, and inflation destroyed real wages. The February 1917 bread riots in Petrograd were the immediate trigger.

Political causes. The Tsars ruled as absolute monarchs. There was no elected parliament with real power, no freedom of speech or press, and opposition was crushed by the secret police. Tsar Nicholas II was personally weak and easily influenced, notably by the mystic Rasputin. The Duma (parliament) was ignored, and the administration was corrupt and inefficient. The war exposed the incompetence of the Tsar, who took personal command of the army and was blamed for every defeat.

Social causes. Russian society was deeply unequal. Beneath the Tsar stood the nobility and clergy; below them the small middle class; and at the base, the peasants and workers, who formed over 80 per cent of the population. The 1905 Revolution had already shown mass discontent, and the massacre of workers on "Bloody Sunday" destroyed whatever faith the people had in the Tsar. Ideas of Karl Marx, spread by intellectuals like Lenin, gave the workers a revolutionary ideology.

Immediate causes. The February Revolution (March 1917) forced Nicholas II to abdicate. A Provisional Government under Kerensky took power but refused to end the war or redistribute land. Lenin returned from exile in April and demanded "Peace, Land and Bread" and "All power to the Soviets." In October 1917 the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky, overthrew the Provisional Government. Russia withdrew from the war by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918), and a civil war (1918–1921) followed between the Reds and the Whites.

Consequences

For Russia. The Tsarist autocracy was abolished. The Bolsheviks established a socialist state, nationalised industry and banks, and distributed land to peasants. A one-party communist regime was set up under the Communist Party. Russia became the USSR in 1922. The revolution also brought a brutal civil war, famine, and later Stalin's dictatorship.

Political consequences for the world. The revolution divided the world into two ideological camps — communism and capitalism. It inspired communist movements in Europe, Asia, and Latin America. It led to the formation of the Comintern (1919) to spread revolution. Western powers, fearing the spread of communism, intervened in the Russian Civil War. After the Second World War, the rivalry between the USA and the USSR produced the Cold War, the arms race, and proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam, and Afghanistan. It also encouraged anti-colonial movements, as colonised peoples saw in Russia a model of liberation from imperial rule.

Economic consequences. The revolution challenged the capitalist world order. It introduced central planning, collective farming, and state ownership of industry. Western countries responded with welfare measures and reforms to reduce the appeal of communism. The Soviet model of rapid industrialisation influenced many newly independent countries in Asia and Africa.

Social consequences. The revolution promoted equality, workers' rights, and the emancipation of women — the USSR was among the first states to grant women the vote and legal equality. It spread the idea that ordinary people could overthrow oppressive rulers. It also produced a climate of fear and repression in the Soviet Union itself, with purges and restrictions on freedom.

Conclusion

The Russian Revolution was both a product of deep-seated economic, political, and social grievances and a turning point in world history. It ended autocracy in Russia, created the first socialist state, and shaped the political, economic, and social conditions of the 20th century by dividing the world ideologically, inspiring anti-colonial and labour movements, and forcing capitalist nations to reform. Its legacy — both its achievements in equality and its costs in repression — continues to be debated today.

मध्यकालीन एसियामा आर्थिक उतारचढाव थियो भन्ने भनाइ सही छ, किनभने यस अवधिमा केही समय समृद्धि आए पनि राजनीतिक अस्थिरता र आक्रमणले अर्थतन्त्र कमजोर बनाएको थियो ।

उत्थानका पक्ष:

• व्यापार: रेशम मार्ग (Silk Road) र समुद्री बाटोबाट चीन, भारत, मध्य एसिया र अरब संसारबिच मसला, रेशम, कपडा, चिनीमाटोको व्यापार फस्टायो ।
• कृषि र सहर: सिँचाइ र नयाँ बाली भित्रिएपछि उत्पादन बढ्यो; बगदाद, दिल्ली, समरकन्द, च्याङआन जस्ता सहर व्यापारका केन्द्र भए ।
• शासन: अब्बासी खलिफत, तङ र सुङ चीन, मुगल साम्राज्यजस्ता बलिया शासनमा कर प्रणाली, मुद्रा र शान्ति रहँदा अर्थतन्त्र चलायमान भयो ।

पतनका पक्ष:

• मङ्गोल आक्रमण (१३औँ शताब्दी) ले बगदाद लगायतका सहर र सिँचाइ प्रणाली नष्ट गर्‍यो ।
• अस्थिर शासन, युद्ध, भारी कर र सामन्ती शोषणले किसान र व्यापारी पीडित भए ।
• अनिकाल, महामारी (कालो मृत्यु) ले जनसङ्ख्या घट्यो र उत्पादन खस्कियो ।
• पछि समुद्री बाटो खुलेपछि युरोपेली व्यापारिक प्रभुत्व बढ्दा स्थलमार्गको व्यापार कमजोर भयो ।

यसरी कतै समृद्धि र कतै पतन भएकाले मध्यकालीन एसियामा आर्थिक उतारचढाव थियो भन्ने पुष्टि हुन्छ ।