Two dishes with examples of garnish:

1. Grilled fish — garnished with lemon wedges and parsley sprigs.
2. Cream soup — garnished with a swirl of cream and chopped coriander.

Equal parts by weight of flour and butter (clarified butter is preferred).

A roux is made by cooking together equal weights of flour and a fat (usually clarified butter or butter) — for example, 100 g flour with 100 g butter — to be used as a thickening agent for soups and sauces.

Egg yolk

Hollandaise is an emulsified warm sauce made from egg yolk, clarified butter, and an acid (vinegar or lemon juice). The yolk provides the emulsifying agent lecithin that holds the butter and acid together.

Sauce

A sauce is a flavoured liquid, usually thickened, that is served with or used in the preparation of other foods to add flavour, moisture, richness and visual appeal. In classical cuisine, sauces are broadly grouped into two families: mother (foundation) sauces and daughter (secondary) sauces, the latter being derived from the former by adding other ingredients. The five mother sauces of classical French cuisine are béchamel, velouté, espagnole, hollandaise and tomato. Of these, velouté and espagnole are stock-based mother sauces.

1. Velouté

Velouté is a light, blond sauce made from a white roux and a light (white) stock. The name comes from the French word velours, meaning velvet, referring to its smooth, velvety texture. The stock used gives the sauce its name — chicken velouté, veal velouté or fish velouté.

Ingredients (yield about 1 litre)

Method

1. Melt the butter in a heavy-bottomed saucepan over low heat.
2. Add the flour and cook gently, stirring continuously, for 2–3 minutes without allowing it to colour. This gives a white/blond roux.
3. Remove from heat and let the roux cool slightly.
4. Add the hot stock gradually, whisking vigorously to avoid lumps.
5. Return to heat and bring to a simmer, stirring constantly.
6. Skim off any scum from the surface and simmer gently for 20–30 minutes until the sauce coats the back of a spoon.
7. Season with salt and white pepper, then strain through a fine strainer or muslin cloth.

Uses: Served with poached chicken, fish, veal and vegetables. It is the base for daughter sauces such as suprême, allemande and vin blanc.

2. Espagnole (Brown Sauce)

Espagnole is a rich brown sauce made from a brown roux and brown stock, along with browned bones, mirepoix and tomato purée. It is the base of most brown daughter sauces such as demi-glace, bordelaise and chasseur.

Ingredients (yield about 1 litre)

Method

1. Heat the butter or dripping in a saucepan and prepare a brown roux by cooking the flour until it turns a nut-brown colour, stirring constantly.
2. In a separate pan, sauté the mirepoix in a little fat until browned.
3. Add the tomato purée to the mirepoix and cook until it darkens.
4. Add the brown stock and bring to a boil.
5. Add the brown roux gradually, whisking continuously to blend well.
6. Add the herbs, salt and pepper, then simmer gently for 1–2 hours, skimming the surface regularly.
7. Strain through a fine strainer or muslin cloth to obtain a smooth brown sauce.

Uses: Served with red meats, game and roasts. It is the base for demi-glace and many brown daughter sauces.

Stock is a flavourful liquid prepared by simmering bones, meat, poultry, fish or vegetables with aromatic ingredients (mirepoix) and seasonings in water for a long time. The liquid is then strained and used as a base for soups, sauces, gravies and stews. It is the foundation of good cooking.

The two main types are white stock and brown stock.

1. White Stock

Quantity (basic proportions for about 4–5 litres):

Ingredients:

• Bones — veal, chicken or beef bones, preferably cracked
• Mirepoix — carrot, onion and celery in roughly 2:1:1 proportion
• Bouquet garni — bay leaf, thyme, parsley stalks, peppercorns
• Cold water and salt

General method:

1. Wash and cut the bones into pieces; blanch them in boiling water for a few minutes and drain (for beef and veal bones).
2. Place the bones in a stock pot and cover with cold water.
3. Bring slowly to the boil and skim off the scum that rises.
4. Add the mirepoix and bouquet garni.
5. Simmer gently (never boil hard) for 3–4 hours for chicken, 6–8 hours for veal or beef.
6. Skim the surface from time to time and add water to keep the bones covered.
7. Strain through a fine sieve or muslin cloth, cool quickly and refrigerate.
8. Remove the fat that sets on the surface before use.

2. Brown Stock

Quantity (basic proportions for about 4–5 litres):

Ingredients:

• Bones — beef, veal or lamb bones, cut small
• Mirepoix — carrot, onion and celery
• Tomato purée or fresh tomatoes (for colour and flavour)
• Bouquet garni — bay leaf, thyme, parsley stalks, peppercorns
• Cold water, salt and a little oil for roasting

General method:

1. Cut the bones into small pieces and place them in a roasting tray.
2. Roast the bones in a hot oven (200–220 °C) until well browned, turning them occasionally.
3. Add the mirepoix and tomato purée and roast again until the vegetables are browned.
4. Transfer the roasted bones and vegetables to a stock pot; deglaze the roasting tray with water and add this liquid to the pot.
5. Cover with cold water and bring slowly to the boil; skim off the scum.
6. Add the bouquet garni and simmer gently for 6–8 hours.
7. Skim regularly, strain through a fine sieve or muslin, cool quickly and refrigerate.
8. Remove the solidified fat from the surface before use.

Key difference: White stock uses unroasted bones and is simmered for a shorter time, giving a pale, delicate liquid; brown stock uses roasted bones and vegetables and is simmered longer, giving a dark, strongly flavoured liquid.

Two uses of stock:

1. As a base for soups, sauces and gravies — stock provides the foundational liquid that gives body, flavour and richness to soups, sauces and gravies.
2. As a cooking liquid for rice, pulses and meats — stock is used in place of water to add flavour to rice, risotto, pulses, and braised or stewed meat dishes.

Béchamel and Espagnole are the mother sauces concerned.

• Béchamel (white sauce) is flavoured with an onion clouté – a peeled onion studded with a clove and a bay leaf – simmered in the milk.
• Espagnole (brown sauce) is flavoured with tomato paste (purée) cooked with the mirepoix before the brown stock is added.

Thailand and India

Tom Yam is a hot-and-sour soup from Thailand, while Mulligatawny is a spiced soup that originated in India (its name comes from the Tamil words for "pepper water").

Soup is a liquid food prepared by cooking meat, poultry, fish, vegetables or other ingredients in water or stock, and served as a first course of a meal. It is a thin or thick liquid dish that stimulates the appetite and is usually served at the beginning of lunch or dinner.

Methods of preparation of cream of mushroom soup:

1. Preparation of stock (white stock): Put chicken or vegetable bones and trimmings in cold water, bring to a boil, skim the scum, and simmer with onion, carrot, celery, bay leaf, peppercorn and salt for 2–3 hours. Strain and keep the white stock aside.

2. Preparation of roux: Melt butter in a heavy-bottomed pan over low heat. Add refined flour and cook gently for 2–3 minutes without browning (white roux). This roux acts as the thickening agent for the soup.

3. Cooking the mushrooms: Wash and slice fresh mushrooms. Sauté them in a little butter until soft and lightly cooked to develop flavour. Reserve a few slices for garnishing.

4. Making the soup base: Add the prepared white stock to the roux gradually, stirring continuously with a whisk to avoid lumps. Add the sautéed mushrooms and simmer for 20–25 minutes so that the mushroom flavour blends into the stock.

5. Blending and straining: Remove from heat, blend the mixture in a blender to a smooth purée, then strain through a fine sieve to get a smooth, velvety consistency.

6. Finishing: Return the strained soup to low heat. Add milk or fresh cream, a little butter, salt, white pepper and a pinch of nutmeg. Adjust the consistency (should coat the back of a spoon) and correct the seasoning. Do not boil after adding cream.

7. Garnishing and serving: Pour into a warm soup bowl, garnish with reserved mushroom slices, a swirl of cream and chopped parsley. Serve hot with bread croutons or bread rolls.

Key points to remember: Use a white roux so the soup stays light in colour; add stock gradually to prevent lumps; simmer gently and never boil after adding cream; serve hot in a warmed bowl.

The styles of fried egg preparation are:

• Sunny-side up – fried on one side only; the yolk stays soft, runny and visible.
• Basted – fried on one side while hot fat or a little water is spooned over (or the pan is covered) so the white on top sets and the yolk stays soft.
• Over easy – fried, then turned over briefly; the white is set and the yolk stays runny.
• Over medium – turned and cooked a little longer; the yolk is partly set.
• Over hard (over well) – turned and cooked until the yolk is fully set.

Both are aromatic flavouring combinations used to flavour stocks, soups and sauces.

Mire poix (diced carrot, onion and celery) and bouquet garni (a bundle of herbs such as parsley, thyme and bay leaf) are both added during cooking to build aroma and flavour, and both are normally removed or strained out before the dish is served.

Butter, flour, milk, and seasonings (salt, white pepper, and often a pinch of nutmeg).

Béchamel is a basic white sauce made from a roux of equal parts butter and flour cooked together, to which milk is gradually added and the mixture is simmered until smooth and thickened.

Soup is a liquid food prepared by cooking meat, poultry, fish, vegetables or pulses in water or stock, and served as the first course of a meal. It is a thin, nutritious and appetising dish that stimulates the appetite before the main course.

The word "soup" comes from the Latin suppa, meaning bread soaked in broth. In modern cookery, soups are broadly classified into three main types:

1. Thin Soups (Clear Soups) These are light, clear and transparent liquids made from clear stock. They are further divided into:

• Broth – a simple, unthickened soup made by simmering meat or vegetables in water (e.g. chicken broth).
• Bouillon – a clear, seasoned stock, usually served in a cup.
• Consommé – a rich, strong, clarified meat stock. It is the most refined clear soup, clarified using egg whites and minced meat (raft) to make it perfectly clear.
• Vegetable juice soups – clear soups made from tomato or other vegetable juices.

Thick Soups These have a heavier consistency because they are thickened with a roux, starch, cream or the puree of the main ingredient itself. They include:

• Cream soups – made with a white stock or milk and thickened with roux or the puree of vegetables (e.g. cream of tomato, cream of mushroom).
• Puree soups – made by cooking and blending starchy vegetables or pulses, which thicken the soup naturally (e.g. potato, lentil or pea soup).
• Velouté soups – made from a blond roux and white stock, finished with a liaison of egg yolk and cream.
• Bisque – a smooth, rich shellfish soup (e.g. prawn or lobster bisque), thickened with rice and finished with cream.
• Chowder – a hearty, chunky soup of fish or shellfish with vegetables and potatoes (e.g. clam chowder).

Special or National Soups These are soups that are characteristic of a particular country or region and often served as a meal in themselves. Examples are Minestrone (Italy), Borsch (Russia), Goulash (Hungary), Mulligatawny (India), French onion soup (France) and Thukpa (Nepal/Tibet).

Cold Soups These are soups served chilled and are popular in summer. Examples are Vichyssoise (cold leek and potato soup), Gazpacho (Spanish cold tomato soup) and Jellied consommé.

Dessert Soups Sweet soups made from fruits and served as a dessert, such as fruit soup or sweet cherry soup.

In short, soups may be thin or thick, hot or cold, and are classified as clear, thick, special/national, cold and dessert soups according to their consistency, ingredients and method of preparation.

Roux-Based Mother Sauces

A roux is a cooked mixture of equal parts flour and fat (usually butter) used to thicken liquids. The four classical mother sauces thickened with a roux are:

1. Béchamel (white sauce) – milk thickened with a white roux.
2. Velouté – white stock (chicken, veal or fish) thickened with a blond roux.
3. Espagnole (brown sauce) – brown stock thickened with a brown roux.
4. Tomato sauce – tomatoes and stock, traditionally thickened with a roux.

(The fifth mother sauce, hollandaise, is an emulsion of egg yolk and butter and does not use a roux.)

Recipe and Method of Two Mother Sauces

1. Béchamel Sauce

Method

1. Melt the butter in a heavy-bottomed pan over low heat.
2. Add the flour and cook for 2-3 minutes, stirring, without browning, to make a white roux.
3. Remove from heat and cool slightly.
4. Add the warm milk gradually, whisking constantly to avoid lumps.
5. Add the clove-studded onion, bay leaf and nutmeg.
6. Return to low heat and simmer for 15-20 minutes, stirring occasionally, until the sauce coats the back of a spoon.
7. Strain, season with salt and white pepper, and use as required.

2. Velouté Sauce

Method

1. Melt the butter and cook the flour over low heat for 3-4 minutes until pale golden, making a blond roux.
2. Remove from heat and cool slightly.
3. Add the hot white stock gradually, whisking continuously.
4. Add the onion, bay leaf and peppercorns.
5. Simmer gently for 20-25 minutes, skimming off any scum.
6. Strain through a fine sieve, season, and use as required.

Note: They are called mother sauces because many daughter sauces derive from them, e.g. Mornay from béchamel and Allemande from velouté.

(b) 71–82 °C (160–180 °F)

Poaching is a moist-heat cooking method in which food is cooked in liquid held just below a simmer. The liquid shows only a few small bubbles occasionally rising to the surface. This gentle temperature range is ideal for delicate foods such as eggs, fish and fruit, because it cooks them through without breaking them apart or toughening the proteins.

Chopped fresh herbs (parsley, chives, dill), a swirl of cream or sour cream, croutons, and toasted seeds or nuts.

Nepali-style salad is dressed simply with lemon juice, salt, and a touch of mustard oil (or sometimes a light yogurt–mayonnaise mix), tossed with chopped onion, tomato, cucumber, and green chilli — no heavy creamy dressing is used.

Developing Nepali Food Varieties Using Mother Sauces of Continental Cuisine

Introduction

In continental cuisine, the five mother sauces — béchamel, velouté, espagnole (brown sauce), tomato sauce, and hollandaise — form the base from which hundreds of derivative sauces are made. Nepali cuisine, on the other hand, is rich in spices, herbs, fermented products, and local ingredients such as timur, jimbu, methi, chiuri ghee, mustard oil, and achar. By using a mother sauce as the base and infusing it with Nepali flavours, we can create new dishes that are both continental in technique and Nepali in taste. This is one of the most practical ways to modernise and globalise Nepali food.

1. Using Béchamel (White Sauce) as a Base

Béchamel is made from butter, flour, and milk. It is mild and creamy, so it accepts Nepali flavours easily.

• Momo white sauce: Add timur (Sichuan pepper), garlic, and green chilli to béchamel to make a dipping sauce for steamed momo, replacing the usual tomato achar.
• Sel roti cream sauce: A sweet béchamel flavoured with cardamom and jaggery can be served with sel roti as a dessert sauce.
• Aloo tama cream bake: Cook aloo tama (potato and bamboo shoot) in a béchamel-based white sauce and bake with local chhurpi cheese on top — a Nepali version of cauliflower cheese.
• Chhurpi mornay: Replace gruyère with chhurpi in a béchamel-based Mornay sauce and serve over vegetables or pasta.

2. Using Velouté (Stock-Based White Sauce) as a Base

Velouté is made from a light stock thickened with roux. It suits Nepali soups and curries well.

• Thukpa velouté: Use a chicken or vegetable stock flavoured with ginger, garlic, and timur as the base, then finish with noodles and greens to make a continental-style thukpa.
• Kwati velouté: A velouté made from mixed-bean stock can become a creamy kwati soup, a modern presentation of the traditional Newari dish.
• Mushroom chyau velouté: Local wild mushrooms cooked in velouté with methi and coriander make a Nepali cream of mushroom soup.
• Gundruk velouté: Gundruk (fermented leafy greens) added to a light stock velouté gives a tangy, umami-rich sauce for rice or millet (kodo) dishes.

3. Using Espagnole / Brown Sauce as a Base

Espagnole is a rich brown sauce made from brown stock and roux, often finished as demi-glace. It pairs well with Nepali meat dishes.

• Sekuwa brown sauce: Add timur, mustard oil, and local spices to espagnole to make a dipping sauce for sekuwa (grilled meat).
• Choila demi-glace: Newari choila flavours (mustard oil, timur, chilli) blended into a brown sauce can be served with buff or chicken.
• Bandhel tareko sauce: Wild boar or mutton cooked in a brown sauce with Nepali garam masala creates a fusion main course.
• Thakali mutton curry: A brown sauce base with local herbs and dried chilli can be presented as a continental-style mutton dish.

4. Using Tomato Sauce as a Base

Tomato sauce is made from tomatoes, roux, and aromatics. It is the closest to Nepali achar and curry bases.

• Nepali tomato achar sauce: Add timur, methi, and mustard oil to a tomato mother sauce to make a smooth, restaurant-style achar.
• Momo dipping sauce: A spiced tomato sauce with sesame and chilli can replace the traditional momo achar.
• Aloo chop sauce: Serve potato chops with a Nepali-spiced tomato sauce instead of ketchup.
• Chatamari topping sauce: Spread a spiced tomato sauce on chatamari before adding toppings, giving it a pizza-like continental touch.

5. Using Hollandaise as a Base

Hollandaise is an emulsion of egg yolk, butter, and lemon. It is delicate, so Nepali flavours must be added carefully.

• Timur hollandaise: A small amount of timur and lemon can be added to hollandaise to serve with grilled fish or vegetables.
• Chilli hollandaise: Nepali dried chilli paste can be folded in for a spicy version to serve with momo or sekuwa.
• Yak cheese hollandaise: Chhurpi or yak cheese can replace part of the butter for a Nepali twist.
• Himalayan herb hollandaise: Fresh herbs like jimbu and coriander can be added for a local aroma.

6. General Principles for Developing Nepali Varieties

• Keep the mother sauce technique intact — the roux, stock, or emulsion must be correct, or the sauce will fail.
• Add Nepali flavours at the right stage — spices should be tempered in oil or added during cooking, not at the end, to release aroma.
• Balance flavours — Nepali food is spicy, tangy, and sometimes fermented; the sauce should not lose its continental character.
• Use local ingredients — timur, chhurpi, gundruk, mustard oil, chiuri ghee, and local herbs give authenticity.
• Consider texture and presentation — strain, finish with butter, and plate in continental style.
• Name dishes clearly — for example, "Timur Hollandaise Momo" or "Gundruk Velouté Soup", so guests understand the fusion.

Conclusion

Mother sauces are not limited to European dishes; they are flexible bases that can carry Nepali flavours. By using béchamel, velouté, espagnole, tomato, and hollandaise as foundations and adding Nepali ingredients and spices, we can create new dishes that are both familiar and innovative. This approach helps preserve Nepali taste while meeting international standards, and it opens opportunities for Nepali cuisine in the global food market.